THE    ROLLING 
MILL  INDUSTRY 


A  Condensed,  General  Description  of  Iron 
andJSteel  Rolling  Mills  and  their  Products 


BY 

F.  H.  Kindl,  Engineer 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


Penton  Publishing  Company 
Cleveland,  Ohio 
1913 


Copyrighl,  1913 

By 
The  Penton  Publishing  Company 


The  Penton  Press 
Cleveland 


Preface 

In  this  work  the  author  has  endeavored  to  give  a  condensed,  general 
description  of  iron  and  steel  rolling  mills  and  their  products,  without 
discussing  the  details  of  roiling  any  special  material.  Essentially,  it  is  a 
summary  of  American  rolling  mill  practice,  its  development  being  traced 
from  the  beginning  to  the  present  day. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  define  more  closely  the  various  mills  and 
their  products  and  the  various  classifications  herein  presented  have  been 
approved  by  leading  manufacturers  and  many  of  the  country's  foremost 
iron  and  steel  engineers. 

The  charts  which  graphically  show  the  production  of  semi-finished 
and  finished  products,  from  2,000  pounds  of  iron  ore,  1 000  pounds  of  coke 
and  600  pounds  of  limestone,  represent  modern  practice  at  some  of  the 
largest  open-hearth  plants  and  rolling  mills.  Charts  also  are  included  to 
clearly  illustrate  the  amounts  of  material  charged  and  produced  in  making 
one  ten  of  pig  iron;  the  distribution  and  production  of  iron  and  steel  in 
1907  and  1911;  the  conversion  of  pig  iron  into  the  various  finished 
products,  etc. 

For  those  interested  in  the  economies  of  the  iron  industry,  a  table 
has  been  prepared  in  which  a  comparison  has  been  made  of  the  general 
fundamental  factors  dictating  the  production  of  pig  iron  in  the  United 
States,  Germany  and  Great  Britain,  with  particular  reference  to  the 
Pittsburgh  district  of  the  United  States,  the  Rheinland-Westfalia  district 
of  Germany,  and  the  Cleveland  district  of  Great  Britain. 

The  author  wishes  to  extend  his  thanks  to  the  several  companies  and 
individuals  who  kindly  furnished  some  of  the  necessary  data  for  this  work ; 
to  the  United  Engineering  and  Foundry  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  for  the  views  cf 
the  various  rolling  mill  installations  and  to  the  American  and  foreign  iron 
and  steel  trade  associations  from  which  the  statistics  largely  were  obtained. 

F.  H.  KINDL 
Pittsburgh,  June  2,  J9J3 


Contents 


*,.  •       ;-*-tW;*.~\,:n    !'-.T  '  ^  -  ;  • 
CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

Historical 1 

CHAPTER  II 
Classification  of  Rolling  Mills 9 

CHAPTER  III 
Finished  Products ..... 21 

CHAPTER  IV 

The  Wire  Industry 37 

'  *>•% 

CHAPTER  V 

•  ..&  ~         .  *.  ..   3  <        .   .  , 

Tube  and  Pipe  Industry 51 

CHAPTER  VI 

-v ••  •  - '  >& 

Tin  and  Terne  Plate  Industry 57 

Statistical .' .' .  .' .' .' .' .".".' 60 

Index..  69 


Illustrations 

Interior  of  Blooming  Mill  Building,  American  Tube  &  Stamping 

Co.,  Bridgeport,  Conn Frontispiece 

40-Inch  Blooming  Mill,  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Co.,  Youngs- 
town,  0 2 

34-Inch  Blooming  Mill  and  Tables,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport, 

Ky 4 

Bloom  Shear  and  Tables,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport,  Ky 6 

Blooming  and  Sheet  Bar  Mill,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport,  Ky.     10 
Motor-Driven,  Continuous  Billet  Mill  at  the  Plant  of  the  Indiana 

Steel  Co.,  Gary,  Ind 11 

28-Inch   Rail   Mill   and   Tables,   Bethlehem    Steel    Co.,    South 

Bethlehem,  Pa 12 

28-Inch  Rail  Mill  and  28-Inch  Structural  Mill,  Bethlehem  Steel 

Co.,  South  Bethlehem,  Pa 14 

Chart  Showing  Graphically  the  Conversion  of  Pig  Iron  Into 
Ingots,  Castings,  etc.,  and  the  Subsequent  Finished  Pro- 
ducts    15 

Amounts  of  Material  Charged  and  Produced  in  Making  One  Ton 

of  Pig  Iron 16 

Production  Conversion  Chart  for  the  Years  1907  and  1911 17 

Rail  Mill  Finishing  Department,  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.,   South 

Bethlehem,  Pa 18 

Production  Conversion  Chart  Showing  the  Weight  in  Pounds  of 
Open-Hearth  Steel  Products  Obtained  From  2,000  Pounds 

of  Ore 22 

Production  Conversion  Chart  Showing  the  Weight  in  Pounds  of 

Open-Hearth  Products  Obtained  From  2,000  Pounds  of  Ore .      23 

Tilting  Frame  Hot  Saws  for  Rail  Mill 24 

Hot  Saw  Run  For  Rail  Mill 26 

Hot  Bed  for  Rail  Mill 28 

Rail  Cambering  Machine,  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.,  South  Bethle- 
hem, Pa 30 

84-Inch  Plate  Mill,  La  Belle  Iron  Works,  Steubenville,  0 32 

Plate  Mill  and  Tables,  La  Belle  Iron  Works,  Steubenville,  O.  .  .      38 

30-Inch  Universal  Plate  Mill 40 

24-Inch  Sheet  Bar  Mill,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport,  Ky 42 

24-Inch  Sheet  Bar  Mill,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport,  Ky 44 

16-Inch  Morgan  Continuous  Mill  at  the  Plant  of  the  Dominion 

Iron  &  Steel  Co.,  Cape  Breton,  N.  S ^.  ..     46 

Motor-Driven,  20-Inch  Merchant  Mill,  Singer  Mfg.  Co.,  Eliza- 
beth, N.  J 48 

16-Inch  Merchant  Mill,  Illinois  Steel  Co.,  Milwaukee 52 

Motor-Driven,  10-Inch  Merchant  Mill,  Singer  Mfg.  Co.,  Eliza- 
beth, N.  J 54 


Tables 

PAGE 

Production  of  Iron  and  Steel  Plates  and  Sheets 31 

Production  of  Rolled  Iron  and  Steel 35 

Total  Production  of  Finished  Rolled  Iron  and  Steel 36 

Production  of  Cut  and  Wire  Nails 41 

Production  of  Tin  and  Terne  Plate 59 

Production  of  Tin  and  Terne  Plate  in  the  United  States  Since 

1891 60 

Iron  and  Steel  Imports  and  Exports 61 

Basic  Factors  of  Pig  Iron  Production  in  the  United  States,  Ger- 
many and  Great  Britain 62 

Summary  of  Statistics  for  1910  and  1911 64 

The  World's  Leading  Iron  and  Steel  Producers 65 

The  World's  Production  of  Coal,  Coke,  Iron  Ore,  Pig  Iron  and 

Steel  in  1910 66 

World's  Iron  and  Steel  Production,  1850  to  1910.  .  67 


Illustrations  PAGE 

Interior  of  Blooming  Mill  Building,  American  Tube  &  Stamping 

Co.,  Bridgeport,  Conn Frontispiece 

40-Inch  Blooming  Mill,  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Co.,  Youngs- 
town,  0 2 

34-Inch  Blooming  Mill  and  Tables,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport, 

Ky 4 

Bloom  Shear  and  Tables,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport,  Ky 6 

Blooming  and  Sheet  Bar  Mill,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport,  Ky.     10 
Motor-Driven,  Continuous  Billet  Mill  at  the  Plant  of  the  Indiana 

Steel  Co.,  Gary,  Ind 11 

28-Inch    Rail    Mill    and   Tables,   Bethlehem    Steel    Co.,    South 

Bethlehem,  Pa 12 

28-Inch  Rail  Mill  and  28-Inch  Structural  Mill,  Bethlehem  Steel 

Co.,  South  Bethlehem,  Pa 14 

Chart  Showing  Graphically  the  Conversion  of  Pig  Iron  Into 
Ingots,  Castings,  etc.,  and  the  Subsequent  Finished  Pro- 
ducts    15 

Amounts  of  Material  Charged  and  Produced  in  Making  One  Ton 

of  Pig  Iron 16 

Production  Conversion  Chart  for  the  Years  1907  and  1911 17 

Rail  Mill   Finishing  Department,  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.,  South 

Bethlehem,  Pa .•••;••  18 

Production  Conversion  Chart  Showing  the  Weight  in  Pounds  of 
Open-Hearth  Steel  Products  Obtained  From  2,000  Pounds 

of  Ore 22 

Production  Conversion  Chart  Showing  the  Weight  in  Pounds  of 

Open-Hearth  Products  Obtained  From  2,000  Pounds  of  Ore.      23 

Tilting  Frame  Hot  Saws  for  Rail  Mill .  .     24 

Hot  Saw  Run  For  Rail  Mill 26 

Hot  Bed  for  Rail  Mill 28 

Rail  Cambering  Machine,  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.,  South  Bethle- 
hem, Pa 30 

84-Inch  Plate  Mill,  La  Belle  Iron  Works,  Steubenville,  0 32 

Plate  Mill  and  Tables,  La  Belle  Iron  Works,  Steubenville,  O.  .  .     38 

30-Inch  Universal  Plate  Mill 40 

24-Inch  Sheet  Bar  Mill,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport,  Ky 42 

24-Inch  Sheet  Bar  Mill,  Andrews  Steel  Co.,  Newport,  Ky 44 

16-Inch  Morgan  Continuous  Mill  at  the  Plant  of  the  Dominion 

Iron  &  Steel  Co.,  Cape  Breton,  N.  S 46 

Motor-Driven,  20-Inch  Merchant  Mill,  Singer  Mfg.  Co.,  Eliza- 
beth, N.  J 48 

16-Inch  Merchant  Mill,  Illinois  Steel  Co.,  Milwaukee 52 

Motor-Driven,  10-Inch  Merchant  Mill,  Singer  Mfg.  Co.,  Eliza- 
beth, N.  J 54 


Tables 

PAGE 

Production  of  Iron  and  Steel  Plates  and  Sheets 31 

Production  of  Rolled  Iron  and  Steel 35 

Total  Production  of  Finished  Rolled  Iron  and  Steel 36 

Production  of  Cut  and  Wire  Nails 41 

Production  of  Tin  and  Terne  Plate 59 

Production  of  Tin  and  Terne  Plate  in  the  United  States  Since 

1891 60 

Iron  and  Steel  Imports  and  Exports 61 

Basic  Factors  of  Pig  Iron  Production  in  the  United  States,  Ger- 
many and  Great  Britain 62 

Summary  of  Statistics  for  1910  and  1911 64 

The  World's  Leading  Iron  and  Steel  Producers 65 

The  World's  Production  of  Coal,  Coke,  Iron  Ore,  Pig  Iron  and 

Steel  in  1910 66 

World's  Iron  and  Steel  Production,  1850  to  1910.  .  67 


1 


.8 


AL — mm. 

*iM 


THE   ROLLING 
MILL  INDUSTRY 


Chapter  I 

Historical 

WITHOUT    discussing   the    details    of    rolling   any    special 
product,  it  must  be  of  interest,  at  least  to  those  engaged 
in  the  iron  and  steel  business,  to  have  a  comprehensive 
knowledge  pertaining  to  this   important  branch  of  the  iron  and 
steel  industry,  and  with  that  in  view,  the  writer  will  give  a  con- 
densed general  description  of  rolling  mills  and  their  products. 

It  will  be  conceded  that  the  most  valuable  factor  in  the 
progress  of  the  art  of  forming  various  sections  from  wrought 
iron  and  steel  was  the  introduction  of  the  rolling  mill.  Its  devel- 
opment can  be  traced  back  to  the  time  of  Henry  Cort,  of  England, 
who,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  Century,  took  out  his  patent 
for  puddling,  and  mills  with  plain  grooved  rolls  were  first  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  bar  iron.  These  bars  subsequently  were 
welded  and  forged  into  various  articles  such  as  chains,  hooks, 
etc.,  and  were  used  largely  for  suspension  bridges.  In  the  course 
of  development,  the  practicability  of  the  plate  mill  was  recog- 
nized, and  the  process  of  rolling  wire  became  known,  wrought 

1 


Historical 


iron  plates  took  the  place  of  wooden  planks  for  ship  construc- 
tion, plate  iron  boilers  were  substituted  for  cast  iron  boilers,  and 
wire  cables  displaced  chains  in  suspension  bridges. 

The  First   Plate   Mill 

In  1780,  the  first  plate  mill  was  built  at  Neuwind,  Germany, 
and  in  1820,  John  Berkinshaw,  of  Belington,  Eng.,  rolled  the 
first  practical  rail,  although  angles  and  T-iron  were  rolled  at  an 
earlier  date. 

As  the  process  of  rolling  plates  became  better  known,  the 
plate  box-girder  and  lattice-girder  were  introduced,  and  wrought 
iron  bridges  began  to  replace  those  built  of  cast  iron  and  wood. 
Concurrent  with  the  growing  requirements  for  wrought  com- 
pression members  in  bridges  (introduced  in  the  United  States 
first),  came  the  demand  for  suitable  structural  shapes.  Thus  we 
might  credit  England  with  having  rolled  the  first  rails,  angles,  T 
and  Z-shapes;  Germany  with  rolling  the  first  plates;  France  with 
designing  and  rolling  the  first  I-beams  and  channels,  and  the 
United  States  with  designing  and  rolling  the  first  segmental 
shapes  so  much  found  in  the  older  designs  of  built  columns.  The 
use  of  wrought  iron  shapes  for  compression  as  well  as  tension 
members  in  connection  with  plates  caused  a  more  general  distribu- 
tion of  their  use  for  other  constructions  than  bridges,  such  as 
cars,  ships,  buildings,  etc.,  until  today,  with  the  exception  that 
the  material  is  no  longer  wrought  iron,  but  steel,  rolled  struc- 
tural shapes  and  plates  form  the  very  skeleton  of  all  our  modern 
structures. 

American    Supremacy 

While  the  supremacy  of  the  United  States  in  the  iron  and 
steel  trade  is  generally  recognized,  there  is  no  other  branch  of  the 
iron  and  steel  industry,  perhaps,  in  which  the  United  States  has 
more  reason  to  take  pride  than  this,  for  on  no  other  have  we 
stamped  our  national  individuality  so  deeply.  The  American 
bridge,  the  American  steel  skeleton  building,  the  Amer- 
ican rail,  the  American  wire,  and  the  American  steel 

3 


Historical 


car  are  those  forms  of  construction  that  are  recognized  the  world 
over  as  having  received  their  most  marked  development  in  this 
country  and  are  a  direct  result  of  the  American  rolling  mill  indus- 
try. Although  the  fundamental  features  of  the  supremacy  of 
the  United  States  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry  are  to  be  found 
in  the  marvelous  resources  of  our  country,  too  much  cannot  be 
said  in  praise  of  the  intelligence  and  skill  with  which  the  Amer- 
ican iron  master  has  risen  to  his  opportunities.  It  is  to  the 
remarkable  ingenuity  shown  in  the  production  of  labor-saving 
machinery  that  much  of  the  low  cost  of  production  is  due,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  broad  administrative  ability  shown  by  the  manage- 
ment of  the  great  steel  works  in  laying  out  the  component  parts 
of  their  establishments  in  such  a  manner  that  the  heavy  tonnage 
which  passes  through  these  plants,  day  after  day,  shall  proceed 
from  the  ore  to  the  finished  product  with  the  minimum  amount  of 
handling  and  trans-shipment.  Finally,  the  more  prominent  iron 
and  steel  men,  early  in  the  history  of  the  development  of  the 
industry,  perceived  and  acted  upon  the  fundamental  economic 
principle  that  for  cheap  production  of  iron  and  steel,  large  oper- 
ations and  combinations  of  capital  are  essential. 

Labor-Saving    Equipment 

The  ingenuity  and  resourcefulness  displayed  in  handling 
and  transporting  the  large  tonnage  of  raw  material,  such  as  ore, 
coal,  coke,  etc.,  required  in  the  production  of  a  constantly  increas- 
ing tonnage  of  rolled  material,  was  ably  followed  when  it  came  to 
the  recovery  of  the  iron  in  the  blast  furnaces  and  the  subsequent 
conversion  into  steel  and  its  fabrication  into  the  thousand  forms  in 
which  the  finished  material  is  offered  for  sale  upon  the  market. 
In  no  single  branch  of  any  industry  has  more  thought  been 
given  to  labor-saving  devices  than  in  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel.  First,  to  reduce  the  handling  and  trans-shipment  to 
a  minimum,  the  processes  are  made  as  continuous  as  possible. 
The  erection  of  a  modern,  typical  steel  works  calls  for  a  plot  of 
ground  preferably  parallelogram  in  shape,  and  many  plants  can 

5 


Historical 


be  found  today  occupying  land  having  a  width  of  one-half  mile 
by  more  than  a  mile  in  length,  along  the  borders  of  a  navigable 
stream  or  lake,  from  which  the  necessary  supply  of  water  is 
derived  and  the  transportation  by  water  made  possible. 

At  one  end  of  a  typical  steel  plant  are  located  the  blast 
furnaces  with  their  artificial  mountains  of  ore,  coke  and  lime- 
stone; then  the  mixer,  followed  by  the  Bessemer  or  open-hearth 
furnaces;  next  in  line  is  the  ingot-stripper  building  with  its  adjoin- 
ing soaking  pits  or  furnaces  for  heating  the  cast  ingots.  Directly 
connected  with  these,  stretch  enormous  buildings,  1,000  feet  or 
more  in  length,  with  their  blooming,  cogging  and  slabbing  mills, 
followed  directly  by  the  various  finishing  mills,  shears,  transfers, 
hot  beds,  saws  and  straightening  departments,  succeeding  each 
other  in  progressive  order  up  to  the  stock  yard  and  shipping 
department,  from  which  the  finished  product  is  loaded  upon 
cars  almost  before  the  last  trace  of  furnace  heat  has  left  it. 

Furthermore,  in  its  transit  through  the  mills,  the  material 
has  been  rolled  and  heated  and  rerolled  without  the  use  of  manual 
labor,  and  for  many  forms  of  material,  the  continuous  processes 
are  carried  on  with  such  rapidity  that  the  entire  rolling  from 
the  ingot  to  the  finished  shape  is  accomplished  in  a  single  heat. 

Electrical  Age  in  Steel  Plants 

In  summing  up  the  causes  of  the  success  in  the  manufacture 
of  steel,  great  importance  must  be  given  to  the  early  varied  appli- 
cation of  electricity  as  a  motive  power  in  the  thousand  uses  to 
which  it  has  lent  itself  so  admirably.  This  valuable  accessory 
to  our  steel  works  practice  was  formerly  generated  entirely  from 
coal-fired  boilers  and  steam  engines  connected  to  electric  gener- 
ators, but  today  it  is  derived  from  the  by-product  of  the  blast 
furnace  which  supplies  the  necessary  gas  for  heating  the  boilers 
and  generating  high  pressure  steam  to  be  used  in  turbines  direct- 
connected  to  electric  generators,  or  is  directly  converted  into  power 
by  means  of  gas  engines  connected  to  electric  generators.  Large 
buildings  in  which  thousands  of  kilowatts  of  electricity  are  thus 

7 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


generated  hourly  and  known  as  central  power  plants,  are  indis- 
pensable to  the  modern  steel  works. 

Applications  of  Electricity 

Among  the  most  useful  applications  of  the  electric  cur- 
rent in  iron  and  steel  plants  are  the  electric  skip-hoist  for  charg- 
ing the  blast  furnace ;  the  electrically-operated  bridges  spanning 
the  stock  yard  of  the  blast  furnace  department;  the  overhead 
electric  traveling  cranes,  covering  in  their  range  the  entire  length 
of  both  charging  and  pouring  sides  of  the  open-hearth  furnaces 
and  entire  mill  buildings;  the  electric  charging  machine  that  picks 
up  a  box  containing  a  ton  or  more  of  mixture,  which  is  thrust  into 
the  furnace,  emptied  and  withdrawn  therefrom;  electric  strippers 
which  strip  the  ingot  mold  from  the  cast  ingot;  electric  soaking 
pit  cranes  for  depositing  the  ingots  in  the  heating  furnaces  and 
withdrawing  them;  electric  buggies  that  receive  the  heated  ingot 
after  it  has  been  lifted  from  the  soaking  pits  and  run  it  to  the 
rolls;  electric  pushers  for  pushing  the  blooms  into  the  furnace 
to  be  reheated,  and  electric  tongs  for  gripping  the  blooms  and  pull- 
ing them  out  at  the  other  end;  electric  motors  for  driving  the 
rolling  mills;  electric  traveling  tables  on  either  side  of  the  mills 
for  conveying  the  material  to  be  rolled  to  the  various  passes  of 
the  rolls  and  to  receive  it  after  passing  through  the  rolls  for 
transfer  to  the  hot  beds,  which  also  are  electrically-operated. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  uses  of  electricity  in  the  steel  works 
without  mentioning  its  many  applications  to  other  operations  in 
the  mines,  railroad  and  ship  transportation,  and  its  direct  use  in 
the  conversion  of  iron  to  steel,  where,  with  ingenuity,  forethought 
and  administrative  skill,  it  has  enabled  the  American  manufac- 
turer to  compete  with  the  world,  while  paying  the  highest  wages 
to  labor  and  returning  immense  dividends  on  capital  invested. 


Chapter  II 

Classification  of  Rolling  Mills 

THE  production  of  rolled  forms  of  iron  and  steel  is  accom- 
plished   in    rolling   mills.      A    rolling    mill    consists    of    a 
train  of  rolls,  which  in  turn  is  composed  of  roll  stands; 
each  stand  consists  of  at  least  two  rolls  set  between  and  carried 
by  frames  called  housings. 

The  rolls  are  cast  iron  or  steel  cylinders  with  their  axes  set 
parallel  and  horizontally  above  each  other,  and  held  in  the  hous- 
ings so  that  a  fixed  space  is  left  between  the  surfaces  of  the  rolls. 
The  rolls  are  driven  by  electric  motors  or  steam  engines,  through 
gear  transmission,  in  such  a  manner  that  they  rotate  in  opposite 
directions ;  the  gears  are  connected  to  the  motive  power  and  rolls 
(by  means  of  spindles,  or  short  shafts  and  coupling  boxes. 

The  operation  of  rolling  consists  in  passing  between  the 
rolls  a  tough  and  pliable  material,  such  as  heated  steel,  having 
greater  thickness  than  the  space  between  the  rolls,  the  result 
of  which  is  a  compression  and  reduction  of  cross-section  of  the 
material  and  its  consequent  elongation. 

The  process  is  similar  to  that  used  by  the  blacksmith  in  the 
elongation  of  a  piece  of  hot  steel  by  means  of  the  hammer,  except 
that  the  same  result  is  accomplished  much  more  rapidly  on  account 
of  the  continuity  of  work  by  means  of  rolling. 

Iron  or  steel  is  either  rolled  direct  from  its  initial  heat  or 
is  reheated  in  furnaces  suitable  for  this  purpose,  to  such  a  temper- 

9 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


10 


Classification  oj  Rolling  Mills 


3o  s 
e  s 
§5 


^  a 

$* 

|| 
S   o 


ature  as  to  soften 
and  render  it  plia- 
ble. Notwithstand- 
ing its  soft  condi- 
tion, the  resistance 
to  change  of  form 
is  considerable  and 
r  e  q  u  ires  numerous 
passes  of  the  ma- 
terial through  the 
rolls  before  the  de- 
sired final  shape  is 
obtained. 

Classes  of  Rolling 
Mills 

Rolling  mills  can 
be  divided  into  two 
fundamental  classes, 
namely,  reversing  and 
non  -  reversing  mills. 
The  reversing  mill, 
types  of  which  are 
shown  in  Figs.  2  and 
3,  has  two  rolls,  one 
above  the  other,  or 
two-high,  which  are 
stopped  after  each 
pass;  the  engine  then 
is  reversed  and  the 
material  is  passed 
through  the  rolls  in 
the  opposite  direc- 
tion. Owing  to  the 
impossibility  of  using 
a  fly-wheel,  stored 


11 


12 


Classification  of  Rolling  Mills 


energy  to  equalize  overloads  cannot  be  used  and  the  engines  of 
such  mills  must  be  exceedingly  heavy  and  powerful,  making  such 
installations  very  expensive,  and  generally  restricting  them  to 
mills  rolling  heavy  ingots,  difficult  to  raise  and  handle. 

The  non-reversing  or  continuous  running  mill,  types  of 
which  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  7,  23,  25  and  26,  consists  of  three 
rolls,  one  above  the  other,  or  three-high,  in  which  the  piece  passes 
between  the  lower  and  middle  rolls  in  one  direction  and  between 
the  top  and  middle  in  the  return  pass.  It  is  self-evident  that 
this  arrangement  is  the  more  productive,  as  the  rotation  of  the 
rolls  is  not  interrupted  and  thus  the  use  of  a  heavy  fly-wheel  is 
not  excluded. 

Rolling  mills  are  generally  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the 
product  which  they  are  designed  to  roll.  They  may  be  referred 
to  by  their  size,  or  rating,  which,  for  everything  except  plates, 
is  based  upon  the  diameter  of  the  rolls;  in  the  case  of  plates,  the 
maximum  width  which  can  be  rolled  fixes  the  size  of  the  mill. 

They  may  be  named  with  reference  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  individual  stands  to  each  other,  also  with  reference  to  the 
kind  of  material  rolled,  such  as  steel,  tool  steel,  copper,  lead, 
brass,  etc. 

Classification  of  Rolling  Mills 

Mills  classified  in  accordance  with  the  name  of  the  product 
which  they  roll,  follow: 

1. — Blooming,  cogging  and  slabbing  mills,  being  the  prepara- 
tory mills  to  rolling  finished  rails,  shapes  or  plates,  respectively. 
If  reversing,  they  are  from  34  to  48  inches  in  diameter,  and  if 
three-high,  from  28  to  42  inches  in  diameter.  Blooming  mills 
are  shown  in  Figs.  2  and  3,  and  a  universal  plate  mill  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  21.  A  plan  view  of  a  blooming  and  sheet  bar 
mill  is  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

2. — Billet  mills,  three-high,  rolls  from  24  to  32  inches  in 
diameter,  used  for  the  further  reduction  of  blooms  down  to  1^ 
x  1^-inch  billets,  being  the  preparatory  mills  for  the  bar  and  rod 

13 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


„ Jo\i  ;=  ~ 

~~ "  s 


_ 

"o 

C/5 
"I 


14 


Classification  of  Rolling  Mills 


BARsfwi 

L          [_BA 


RE    RODS,    WIRE,    WIRE     MAILS 
BANDS,    HOOPS 


SHAPES 

RAILS,  SPLICE    BARS 

AXLE    BLANKS,   FORGED     AXLES 


PLATES,    SHEET     BARS,    SHEETS,     TIN      PLATE 

SKELP,      TUBES 

WHEEL      BLANKS,      FORGED       WHEELS 


BARS  fw'RE    RODS,    WIRE,  WIRE    NAILS 
L  BANDS,  HOOPS 

SHAPES 

RAILS,  SPLICE    BARS 

AXLE     BLANKS,    FORGED     AXLES 


PLATES,    SHEET     BARS,  SHEETS,   TIN    PLATE. 

SKELP,        TUBES 

WHEEL    BLANKS,     FORGED     WHEELS 


BLOOMS 

BILLETS      ("SINGLE  REFINED  IRON,  SKELP,    TUBES 
MUCK   BAR! DOUBLE    REFINED    IRON,    SHAPES 


FRIPLE      REFINED       IRON 


•  ji PLATES 

[BARS 


[CRUCIBLE  T 

•SEMER     SCRAP 

:N  HEARTH  SCRAP!     STEE:L     L 


("FORCINGS 
INGOTS  [BARS 


STRUCTURAL 

MACHINE 

PIPE 

POTTERY 

ORNAMENTAL 

AGRICULTURAL 


Fig.  9 — Chart  which  Graphically  shows  the  Conversion  of  Pig  Iron  into  Ingots, 

Castings,  Etc.,  and  the  subsequent  finished  products. 

15 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


'W%X'''<ti%<%&. 

'//  /////////  BLAST  /  //f//  //r/' 
',  '/,  ''/I'  9QOO  /  POUNDS  xxX  £ 
."'/x,  .  .Xx/  ''/x,  '«'xx  /x/ x  <, 


LIMESTONE     12OO    POUNDS 


mills.      A  plan  view  of  the  continuous  billet  mill  operated  by  the 
Indiana  Steel  Co.,  Gary,  Ind.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

3. — Sheet  bar  mills,  three-high,  rolls  from  24  to  32  inches 

in  diameter,  used  for  the  fur- 
ther reduction  of  slabs  and 
blooms  to  sheet  bars;  these 
are  the  preparatory  mills  for 
sheet  and  tin  mills.  Sheet  bar 
mills  are  shown  in  Figs.  22 
and  23,  and  a  plan  of  mill, 
Fig.  S. 

4. — Beam  mills,  three-high, 
rolls  from  28  to  36  inches  in 
diameter,  for  the  production  of 
heavy  beams  and  channels  12 
inches  and  over.  A  plan  of 
a  28-inch  structural  mill  is 
shown  in  Fig.  8. 

5. — Rail  mills  with  rolls 
from  26  to  40  inches  in  diame- 
ter. A  plan  for  a  28-inch  rail 
mill  is  shown  in  Fig.  8. 

6. — Shape  mills  with  rolls 
from  20  to  26  inches  in  diam- 
eter, for  smaller  sizes  of  beams 
and  channels  and  other  struc- 
tural shapes.  A  mill  for  this 
work  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  25. 

7. — Merchant  bar  mills  with 
rolls  from  16  to  20  inches  in 
diameter.  Types  of  these  mills 
are  shown  in  Figs,  25,  26  and 
27. 


Fig.  10 — Amounts  of  Material   Charged 
and  Produced  in  Making  one 

Ton  of  Pig  Iron 

This  Represents  American  Blast  Furnace  Practice 
in  the  Northern  District . 


16 


Classification  of  Rolling  Milh 


.FINISHED      ROLLED     IRON,  AND     STEEL     PRODUCTS. 

I 


CRUCIBLE  CRUCIBLE 

MISC.  MIISC* 

HEARTH   HEARTH   STEEL      STEEL 

CASTGS,  CASTGS.  INGOTS  CASTGS. 

3f>B  ,38  »  i 

267  .304  «I22 

•084 

o 


ELECTRIC 
STEEL 


a  a 


.0233 

.0140 

o. 


IRON 

CASTINGS 
NO 


i 


\ 


3LAST         FURNACES  ACTIVE1 

442  167 

465  231 


IDLE  YEAR, 

276        raor 

234  1911 


Fig.  11— Production  Conversion  Chart  for  the  Years  1907  and  1911. 

Production  in  millions  of  tons 

17 


•§» 


IS 


Classification  of  Rolling  Mills 


8. — Small  merchant  bar  mills  with  finishing  rolls  from  8  to 
16  inches  in  diameter,  generally  arranged  with  a  larger  size 
roughing  stand.  Such  a  mill  is  shown  in  Fig.  27. 

9. — Rod  and  wire  mills  with  finishing  rolls  from  8  to  12 
inches  in  diameter,  always  arranged  with  larger  size  roughing 
stands,  Fig.  24. 

10. — Hoop  and  cotton  tie  mills,  similar  to  small  merchant 
bar  mills,  Fig.  27. 

11. — Armor  plate  mills  with  rolls  from  44  to  50  inches  in 
diameter  and  140  to  180-inch  body. 

12. — Plate  mills  with  rolls  from  28  to  44  inches  in  diameter, 
Figs.  19  and  20. 

13. — Sheet  mills  with  rolls  from  20  to  32  inches  in  diameter. 

14. — Universal  mills  for  the  production  of  square-edged 
or  so-called  universal  plates  and  various  wide  flanged  shapes  by 
a  system  of  vertical  and  horizontal  rolls,  Fig.  21. 

15. — Tube  mills  for  the  production  of  tubes. 

16. — Special  mills,  such  as  slitting,  piercing,  tire  wheel 
mills,  etc. 

17.— Cold  mills. 

Mills  in  classifications  Nos.  1  to  10,  inclusive,  have  grooved 
rolls 

Mills  in  classifications  Nos.  2,  3,  9,  10,  13  and  15,  for  large 
tonnage  production,  are  preferably  built  of  the  continuous  type, 
which  consists  of  a  number  of  stands  of  two-high,  non-reversing 
rolls,  one  behind  the  other,  which  are  driven  at  progressively 
increasing  speeds.  A  plan  of  a  continuous  billet  mill  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  6,  and  Fig.  24  is  a  Morgan  continuous  mill. 

Rolling   Mill   Layout 

The  general  layout  of  a  rolling  mill  is  dependent  upon 
many  conditions,  but  it  will  be  found  here,  as  in  all  up-to-date 
manufacturing  establishments,  that  the  arrangement  is  such  as 

19 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


to  provide  for  a  logical,  continuous,  progressive  and  economical 
operation,  so  that  the  material  to  be  rolled  enters  at  one  end 
of  the  mill  and  leaves  it  as  a  finished  product  at  the  other  end. 
Ample  space  is  provided  so  there  may  be  no  overcrowding,  and 
provisions  are  made  on  all  mills  to  roll  the  greatest  possible 
finished  length  in  one  heat.  The  arrangement  of  various  types 
of  mills  is  shown  in  Figs.  5,  6  and  8. 

The  progressive  steps  in  a  complete  plant  to  convert  the 
ore  into  the  finished  product  are  as  follows:  From  the  blast 
furnace  to  the  mixer,  to  the  steel  works,  to  the  soaking  pits,  to  the 
blooming,  cogging  or  slabbing  mills,  to  the  various  finishing  mills, 
to  the  hot  beds,  through  the  saw  and  straightening  departments 
to  the  shipping  yards.  The  conversion  charts,  Figs.  9,  11,  13  and 
14,  graphically  illustrate  the  conversion  of  ore  to  the  finished 
products. 

Semi-Finished  Products 

The  products  of  a  rolling  mill  are  divided  into  semi-finished 
and  finished  rolled  material.  To  the  first  belong  rolled  blooms, 
slabs,  billets  and  sheet  bars.  This  material  is  produced  by  roll- 
ing an  ingot  to  square,  rhomboidal  or  flat  sections  having  more 
or  less  rounded  corners.  When  an  ingot  has  been  reduced  to  a 
section  6  inches  square  or  larger,  it  is  called  a  bloom ;  if  rolled 
flat  to  a  section  having  a  thickness  not  less  than  2  inches  and  a 
width  of  at  least  12  inches,  it  is  called  a  slab;  if  from  \l/2  inches 
square  or  round  and  less  than  6  inches  square  or  round  and  cut 
into  lengths,  it  is  called  a  billet.  A  sheet  bar  is  a  section  having 
a  thickness  less  than  2  inches  and  a  width  from  6  to  12  inches. 

Semi-finished  material  is  commercial  only  as  such,  and  not 
being  straightened  or  cut  square  on  the  ends,  it  is  only  adapted 
for  use  for  further  rolling  or  working  into  more  highly  finished 
products. 


20 


Chapter   III 

Finished  Products 

THE    finished    rolled    material    includes    all    iron    and    steel 
rolled  to  finished  forms.      It  is  the  product  or  forms  pro- 
duced by  rolling  semi-finished  material  in  finishing  mills. 
This  class  may  be  divided  into  the  following  groups : 

First. — Bars,  rods,  wire  rods,  bands  and  hoops,  Fig.  13. 

Second. — Shapes,  structural  shapes,  rails  and  splice  bars, 
Fig.  13. 

Third. — Plates,  sheets,  skelp  and  nail  plates,  Fig.  14. 

Fourth. — Forgings,  armor  plate,  axles,  wheels,  tires  and  drop 
forgings,  Fig.  14. 

First  Group 

Bars,  rods,  wire  rods,  bands  and  hoops,  constituting  the 
first  group,  are  produced  from  blooms,  slabs  and  billets"  by  reduc- 
ing this  material  to  the  simplest  forms,  such  as  squares,  rounds 
and  flats.  These  forms  resemble  the  cross-section  of  the  material 
from  which  they  are  rolled,  and  their  final  section  determines 
their  nomenclature.  The  materials  of  this  group  have  great 
length  compared  with  their  width  and  thickness.  The  steel  from 
which  they  are  rolled  is  prepared  to  conform  to  certain  specifica- 
tions, and  the  section  must  be  within  certain  limits  as  to  size  and 
weight,  and  must  be  suitable  for  further  fabrication  into  bolts, 
nuts,  spikes,  chains,  rivets,  wire,  wire  nails,  hoops,  cotton  ties, 

21 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


COTTQM    TIE*, 


Fig.  13 — Production  Conversion  Chart  showing  the  Weight  in  Pounds  of 
Open-Hearth  Steel  Products  Obtained  from  2,000  Pounds  of  Ore. 

22 


Finished   Products 


BUTT -WELD      TUBES 


740 

LAP-WELD| TUBES 


7!O     -   73O" 


910 

I 


TIRE?,    HEAVY     AXLES      'AND 
FORCINGS 


SHEET 
BARS 


THIRD      GROUP 
SEMI  -   FINISHED 


PIG 
IRON 


THIRD    GROUP 
SEMI  -  FINISHED 


Fig.  14 — Production  Conversion  Chart  showing  the  Weight  in  Pounds  of 
Open-Hearth  Steel  Products  'Obtained  from  2,000  Pounds  of  Ore. 

23 


24 


Finished   Products 


springs,  etc.  Bars  may  be  either  square,  round  or  flat;  the  sizes 
to  which  they  are  commercially  rolled  being  3/16  to  7*4  inches 
square  or  round.  Sizes  ^J  to  3  1/16  inches  are  known  as  base 
or  standard.  Flats  are  commercially  rolled  ^  inch  wide  by  l/% 
inch  thick  up  to  6  x  4  inches ;  sizes  ^  x  ]/%  inch  to  6  x  3/16  inch 
are  classed  as  light  bars  and  bands,  and  sizes  1  x  y%  inch  up  to 
6x4  inches  are  commercially  classed  as  flat  bars  and  heavy 
bands.  Sizes  from  1  to  6  inches  wide  x  ^  inch  to  1  inch  thick 
are  known  as  base  or  standard. 

A  rod  is  generally  understood  to  be  a  round  bar.  Standard 
wire  rods  are  round  bars  having  a  section  0.2  to  0.3  inch  in  diame- 
ter, which  are  coiled  in  bundles.  The  United  States  government 
limits  the  size  of  wire  rods  to  No.  6  B.  W.  G.,  or  0.203  inch, 
and  if  thinner  than  this,  the  product  is  termed  wire. 

Hoops  are  very  thin  flats  having  a  thickness  from  No.  13 
B.  W.  G.  to  No.  23  B.  W.  G.,  and  from  ^  to  8  inches  in  width. 
Owing  to  their  general  length,  they  are  coiled  the  same  as  wire 
rods,  but  are  subsequently  annealed,  cut  to  length  and  shipped  in 
bundles. 

Cotton  ties  is  a  product  made  from  hoop  iron  or  steel  cut 
to  certain  lengths  and  used  for  fastening  bales  of  cotton.  They 
are  generally  shipped  in  bundles,  each  containing  30  ties  and 
weighing  45  pounds  per  bundle. 

Second  Group 

Shapes,  constituting  the  second  group,  are  reduced  from 
blooms,  slabs  or  billets  to  forms  having  more  or  less  irregular 
section.  In  the  process  of  rolling,  the  original  material  is  not 
only  reduced  in  section,  but  it  is  also  developed  into  a  definite 
shape.  The  various  shapes  are  given  commercial  names,  such 
as  rails,  splice  bars,  I-beams,  channels,  zees,  tees,  angles,  etc.  The 
heavier  and  larger  sizes  of  these  shapes  are  frequently  rolled 
direct  in  one  heat  from  the  ingot  to  the  finished  material. 

After  leaving  the  rolling  mill,  shapes  are  cut  to  length  and 
are  cooled  on  cooling  beds,  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  7.  Fig. 

25 


Finished   Products 


17  is  a  rail  mill  cooling  bed.  The  shapes  are  subsequently 
straightened  by  means  of  straightening  rolls  or  presses,  the  latter 
work  being  performed  in  suitable  shops  adjoining  the  rolling 
mill,  and  in  this  condition  they  are  known  commercially  as  struc- 
tural shapes.  These  shapes  are  further  developed  and  worked 
into  various  products  at  shops  specially  adapted  to  carry  out  the 
character  of  the  work  for  which  they  are  intended.  For  example, 
the  fabrication  of  products  built  for  building  construction  is 
carried  on  in  architectural  iron  works;  bridges  at  bridge  works; 
ships  at  ship  yards,  and  railroad  construction  at  car  shops. 

The  steel  from  which  structural  shapes  are  rolled  is  pre- 
pared to  conform  to  three  kinds  of  specifications,  namely,  for 
buildings,  bridges  and  ships. 

Rails 

Rails  are  rolled  shapes  used  for  guiding  and  car- 
rying the  wheels  of  railroad  cars,  and  are  produced  in  rolling 
mills  specially  designed  for  this  purpose  and  known  as  rail  mills. 
A  plan  view  of  a  rail  mill  is  shown  in  Fig.  8,  and  the  various 
rail  mill  departments  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  7,  12,  15,  16,  17 
and  18.  The  steel  from  which  rails  are  rolled  is  prepared  to 
conform  with  standard  specifications  for  steel  rails,  and  the  sec- 
tions of  rails  in  the  United  States  are  largely  made  in  accord- 
ance with  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers'  standards. 
Rails  are  divided  into  light  and  heavy  rails,  light  rails  being  those 
weighing  less  than  40  pounds  per  lineal  yard.  Rails,  in  addition 
to  being  sawed  square  and  straightened,  are  drilled  at  their 
ends  for  holes  to  receive  the  bolts  used  for  splicing  or  joining 
the  ends  of  two  rails.  While  rails  are  rolled  to  120  feet  and 
more,  the  standard  length  when  shipped  is  30  to  33  feet. 

Splice  bars  are  rolled  shapes  used  for  joining  the  ends  of 
rails.  They  are  cut  accurately  to  length  and  must  fit  perfectly 
to  the  rails  for  which  they  are  intended.  They  are  punched  to 
match  the  holes  drilled  in  the  rails  as  well  as  notched  to  receive 
the  spikes  fastening  them  to  the  wooden  ties. 

27 


28 


Finished   Products 


Third  Group 

Plates  and  skelp,  of  the  third  group,  is  the  material  obtained 
by  rolling  slabs  and  blooms  in  mills  known  as  plate  and  skelp  mills, 
respectively,  shown  in  Figs.  19  and  20.  A  sheet  is  the  product  ob- 
tained by  rolling  sheet  bars  in  sheet  mills.  While  bars  and  shapes 
have  great  length  compared  with  their  other  dimensions,  this  does 
not  apply  to  plates  and  sheets  where  the  width  is  also  well  devel- 
oped ;  this  form  of  product  is  known  as  sheets  when  rolled  to  a 
thickness  less  than  No.  12  gage.  The  United  States  govern- 
ment limits  this  thickness  to  No.  10,  United  States  standard  gage. 
With  reference  to  quality  and  use,  plates  may  be  divided  into  tank, 
bridge,  ship  and  boiler  plates.  The  steel  entering  into  the  material 
from  which  plates  are  rolled  is  prepared  to  conform  to  standard 
specifications  governing  the  above  classes.  Boiler  plates  are 
further  divided  (with  reference  to  the  grade  of  steel  to  be  used 
for  certain  parts  of  the  boiler)  into  flange,  fire  box  and  extra 
soft  steel.  Plates,  after  being  rolled,  have  frequently  an  uneven 
surface,  which  is  flattened  by  passing  them  through  straighten- 
ing rolls.  Long  plates  are  straightened  by  being  held  in  place 
against  guides  and  are  hammered  flat  with  wooden  hammers. 
Plates,  after  being  straightened  and  cooled,  are  transferred  to 
the  shearing  department,  usually  adjoining  the  plate  mill,  where 
they  are  cut  to  size.  Plates  having  irregular  edges  must 
be  sheared.  Universal  mill  plates  have  their  edges  rolled  and 
need  only  be  sheared  on  the  ends.  Universal  mill  plates  are  rolled 
from  18  to  60  inches  in  width. 

Skelp 

Skelp  plate  is  a  material  used  for  the  manufacture  of  tubes 
and  pipes.  It  is  rolled  to  such  width  and  thickness  as  may  be 
necessary  to  produce  a  certain  diameter  and  strength  of  tubing. 
The  edges  of  skelp  plate  are  generally  sheared  for  large  sizes 
of  pipe.  When  the  edges  of  plate  are  rolled  or  cut  to  a  beveled 
shape,  it  is  called  scarfed  skelp,  and  is  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  lap-welded  pipes.  Grooved  skelp  are  plates  rolled  in  a  mill 

29 


30 


Finished   Products 


having  grooves  cut  into  the  rolls  the   width  of  the  plates  to  be 
rolled. 

Sheets 

Sheets  are  rolled  from  sheet  bars  of  such  thickness  and  are 
sheared  into  such  lengths  that  each  piece  will  be  of  the  exact 
weight  to  make  the  sheet  required.  The  sheet  bars  are  heated 
and  rolled  into  sheets  of  the  required  thickness  in  mills  called 
sheet  mills.  They  are  also,  when  specified,  cold-rolled  or  pickled 
and  cold-rolled,  to  meet  special  requirements.  As  the  sheets  be- 
come hard  in  the  process  of  rolling,  they  must  be  annealed.  This 
is  accomplished  in  suitable  furnaces.  Sheet  mills,  as  a  rule,  do 
not  roll  thinner  than  No.  30  gage.  Black  sheets  is  a  term  gen- 
erally used  to  differentiate  between  sheets  that  are  uncoated  and 
those  that  are  coated. 

TABLE  I 
PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  PLATES  AND  SHEETS 

Plates,  No.  12  and  thicker.       Sheets,  No.  13  and  thinner. 


Years. 

1905 

Iron, 
gr.  tons. 
10,022 

Steel, 
gr.  tons. 
2,031,184 

Total, 
gr.  tons. 
2,041,206 

Iron, 
gr.  tons 
62,134 

Steel, 
gr.  tons. 
1,428,890 

Total, 
gr.  tons. 
1,491,024 

1906.. 
1907.. 
1908.. 
1909.. 
1910 

...23,333 
...30,277 
...31,679 
...32,332 
37,763 

2,508,219 
2,629,783 
1,239,342 
2,346,766 
2,769,965 

2,531,552 
2,660,060 
1,271,021 
2,379,098 
2,807,728 

51,040 
43,761 
22,354 
43,870 
53,355 

1,599,564 
1,545,011 
1,356,318 
1,811,378 
2,094,401 

1,650,604 
1,588,772 
1,378,672 
1,855,248 
2,147,756 

1911 

46,147 

2,288,194 

2,334,341 

43,280 

2,110,428 

2,153,708 

1912 

33.349 

3.001.851 

3.035.200 

41.695 

2.798.185 

2.839.880 

Nail  plates  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  cut  nails.  The 
plates  must  be  of  uniform  thickness.  This  product  is  being 
rapidly  eliminated  owing  to  the  increasing  use  of  wire  nails. 

Table  I  gives  the  production  of  iron  and  steel  plates  and 
sheets  from  1905  to  1912. 

Group  Four 

By  forgings,  group  four,  is  understood  the  product  obtained 
by  the  various  steps  or  stages  of  heating,  pressing  or  hammering 
an  ingot,  bloom,  slab  and  other  rolled  products  into  a  definite  form 

31 


^r 

7 


32 


Finished   Products 


or  shape.  Work  performed  on  forged  articles,  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  forging  process,  such  as  machine  work,  advances 
them  beyond  the  class  of  product  known  as  forgings,  although 
such  finishing  process  or  work  is  frequently  performed  in  the 
same  shops  where  the  forging  of  the  article  takes  place. 

Armor  plate  is  a  specially  heavy  plate,  forged  from  a 
large  ingot  by  means  of  powerful  hydraulic  presses.  It  is  used 
for  the  protective  sheathing  of  war  vessels  to  withstand  the 
penetration  of  projectiles.  After  being  forged  the  plates  are 
finished  to  exact  dimensions  in  machine  shops  with  specially 
equipped  tools  and  appliances  for  this  class  of  work.  There  are 
many  patented  processes  for  the  treatment  of  armor  plate  for 
producing  a  tough  material  with  .a  hard  surface,  the  most  notable 
being  the  Krupp  and  Harvey  processes.  The  manufacture  of 
armor  plate  is  carried  on  in  works  close  to  the  steel  works,  where 
the  armor  plate  ingots  are  cast,  and  is  an  industry  requiring 
great  skill  and  careful  manipulation  so  that  the  product  will  meet 
the  exact  requirements  of  ordnance  specifications. 

Railroad   Axles 

Railroad  axles  are  forged  shafts  having  wheel  seats  and 
journals  carrying  the  wheels,  and  supporting  the  truck  or  frame 
of  locomotives,  tenders  or  cars.  Steel  entering  into  the  material 
from  which  axles  are  forged  is  made  to  conform  to  special  speci- 
fications depending  upon  whether  the  axle  is  to  be  used  for  car 
or  tender  trucks,  driving  or  engine  trucks. 

Railroad  axles  are  forged  in  one  heat,  from  blooms  or  billets, 
under  a  steam  hammer,  or  high-speed  forging  press.  After  the 
forging  process,  they  are  transferred  to  the  machine  shop,  where 
they  are  cut  to  length  and  centered.  Frequently,  axles  are  rough- 
turned  in  the  same  shop,  and  sometimes  finished  complete  ready  to 
receive  the  wheels. 

Axles  are  tested  for  strength  before  being  shipped,  and 
must  conform  to  certain  specifications.  After  being  tested,  they 
are  stamped  with  the  melt  number  and  initials  of  the  maker. 

33 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


The  plants  manufacturing  this  class  of  forgings  are  called  axle 
works,  and  are  located  close  to  the  steel  works,  where  the  blanks 
or  blooms  are  rolled. 

Forged   Wheels 

Wheels,  like  axles,  are  produced  in  works  specially  equipped 
for  this  class  of  forging.  There  are  numerous  processes  for 
forging  wheels,  but  the  common  practice  consists  in  pressing 
an  octagonal  ingot  into  a  round  slab.  The  slab  is  reheated, 
punched  and  pressed  to  the  form  of  a  wheel;  this  form  is  again 
reheated  and  placed  in  a  specially  constructed  rolling  mill,  which 
gives  the  wheel  its  final  shape.  These  various  operations  are 
shown  graphically  in  Fig.  14.  After  leaving  the  rolling  mill,  the 
wheel  is  machined,  bored  and  finished  ready  to  be  pressed  on 
the  axle.  Special  specifications  govern  the  quality  of  steel  from 
which  the  wheels  are  produced,  and  tests  are  made  similar  to  those 
for  axles. 

Tires  are  circular  forgings  used  to  form  the  treads  of 
wheels.  They  are  shrunk  to  the  outer  rim  of  the  wheels,  and 
securely  fastened  thereto.  They  are  forged  from  ingots  of  octag- 
onal shape  by  pressing  and  punching  to  an  annular  form,  and 
subsequently  expanding  the  ring  in  a  hydraulic  press,  and  are 
finally  rolled  to  shape.  After  rolling,  the  tire  is  turned  to  exact 
size  in  the  machine  shop,  and  finished  ready  to  be  shrunk  upon 
the  wheel.  The  manufacture  is  carried  on  in  separate  shops  with 
tools  and  appliances  specially  designed  for  the  purpose,  similar 
to  that  of  wheels  and  axles. 

Drop  Forgings 

Drop  forgings  is  the  product  obtained  by  forging  a  suita- 
ble piece  of  steel  between  dies  under  a  hammer,  the  lower  die 
being  attached  to  the  anvil  block,  while  the  upper  die  is  fastened 
to  the  hammer  itself,  and  moves  up  and  down  with  it.  From  the 
drop  hammer,  the  forging  is  placed  in  a  trimming  press  to  remove 
the  excess  metal,  called  flash,  before  being  machined.  The  pro- 
cess is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  articles  in  large  quantities. 

34 


Finished  Products 


PRODUCTION  OF  ROLLED  IRON  AND  STEEL 
The    following   table    gives   the    production,    in   gross 
tons,   of  all   leading  articles  of   finished   rolled   iron   and 
steel   in   1911,   and   total   production   from    1904  to    1910, 
inclusive : 


Article. 
Rails 

Iron, 
gross  tons 
234 

1911. 
Steel, 
gross  tons 
2822556 

Total, 
gross  tons 
2  822  790 

T't'lgross 
tons  in 
.       1910. 
3636031 

Structural    shapes... 
Plates  and  sheets... 
Nail  and  spike  plate 
\Vire   rods 

811 
89,427 
9,951 
610 

1,911,556 
4,398,622 
38,571 
2  449  843 

1,912,367 
4,488,049 
48,522 
2  450  453 

2,266,890 
4,955,484 
45,294 
2241,830 

Rolled  forging  bl'ims 
and  'billets  

363 

230,752 

231,115 

459,933 

Merchant   bars  
Bars    for    reinforced 
concrete    work.... 
Skelp,  flue,  etc  

835,625 

2,388 
322,397 

2,211,737 

256,353 
1,658,276 

3,047,362 

258,741 
1,980,673 

3,785,731 

241,109 
1,828,194 

Splice    bars     .  . 

14694 

148  876 

163  570 

223,022 

Hoops 

225  074 

225  074 

262  214 

Bands   and   cot'n-ties 
Sheet   piling  

12 

342,798 
22,827 

342,810 
22,827 

424,979 
26,598 

Railroad   ties       .  .    . 

39197 

39197 

49048 

A  1  1     other     finished 
rolled    product.... 

184,103 

821,518 

1,005,621 

1,174,922 

Total  for   1911..    . 
Total  for  1910..    . 
Total  for  1909..    . 
Total   for   1908..    . 
Total  for  1907..    . 
Total  for  1906..    . 
Total  for   1905..    . 
Total  for  1904..    . 

1,460,615 
1,740,156 
1,709,431 
1,238,449 
2,200,086 
2,186,557 
2,059,990 
1,760,084 

17,578,556 
19,881,123 
17,935,259 
10,589,744 
17,664,736 
17,019,911 
14,780,025 
10,253,297 

19,039,171 
21,621,279 
19,644,690 
11,828,193 
19,864,822 
19,588,468 
16,840,015 
12,013,381 

21,621,279 

PRODUCTION  OF  FORGED  IRON  AND  STEEL 
The  production  of  forged  iron  and  steel  axles,  shaft- 
ings, anchors,  armor  plate,  gun  carriages,  etc.,  by  rolling 
mills  and  steel  works  from  1906  to  1911,  was  as  follows, 
in  gross  tons  of  2,240  pounds: 
Production. 

Total, 

gr.  tns.          Yr. 
352,636          1909. 

380,805  1910.. 20,410    299,452    319,862 

131,143  1911..  4,034    214,202    218,236 


Iron,  Steel, 
Yr.  gr.  tns.  gr.  tns. 
1906..  19,148  333,488 
1907..  23,772  357,033 
1908..  13,646  117,497 


Production. 
Iron,       Steel,       Total, 
gr.  tons.  gr.  tns.  gr.  tns. 
25,523    223,741     249,264 


35 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


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Chapter  IV 

The  Wire  Industry 


WIRE  is  the  name  given  to  small  metal  filaments  produced 
in  pieces  of  considerable  length  in  the  process  of  draw- 
ing, in  other  words,  successively  reducing  and  extending 
the  section  by  repeatedly  pulling  it  cold  through  tapered  holes 
in  a  die  plate.  Most  wire  is  of  round  cross-section,  but  it  may 
also  be  square,  flat,  oval  or  have  other  forms,  and  is  then  known 
as  shaped  wire.  Iron  or  steel  wire  is  drawn  down  to  0.007  inch, 
or  No.  34  B.  W.  G.  or  finer.  The  United  States  government  has 
adopted  the  B.  W.  G.  as  standard  for  measuring  the  thickness, 
and  classes  all  iron  or  steel  rolled  or  drawn  to  a  thickness  of  less 
than  No.  6  B.  W.  G.  (0.203  inch)  as  wire. 

Wire  may  be  produced  from  all  ductile  metals,  but  iron 
and  steel  wires  have  by  far  the  greatest  application  and  com- 
prise nearly  one-eighth  of  the  entire  iron  and  steel  output. 

The  main  articles  produced  from  wire  are  nails,  spikes, 
barbed  wire,  wire  rope,  telegraph  and  telephone  wire,  coiled 
spring  steel  fence  wire,  chain  wire,  various  forms  of  woven  wire 
and  wire  netting,  wire  hoop,  wire  bale  ties,  springs,  piano  wire, 
rivets,  screws,  staples,  tacks,  etc.  Large  quantities  of  various 
classes  of  wire  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  for  house- 
hold and  industrial  purposes  having  innumerable  applications. 

37 


The  Wire  Industry 


Wire  Drawing 

The  drawing  of  wire  is  performed  in  a  drawbench,  which 
consists  of  a  die-plate  and  a  driven  reel  for  pulling  the  wire 
through  the  die.  In  order  to  reduce  the  friction  caused  by  draw- 
ing, the  wire  is  coated  with  a  lubricant.  The  drawing  may  be 
either  by  the  wet  or  dry  process;  the  latter  is  generally  used  on 
sizes  down  to  No.  18  and  employs  tallow  or  soap-stone  as  a  lubri- 
cant, while  the  former  is  used  for  finer  wires  and  a  lubricant  of 
rye  meal  flour  and  water  is  used.  When  a  coppered  finish  is 
required,  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate  is  applied  to  the  wire  and 
then  it  is  given  the  final  drawing.  Wire,  after  being  drawn  through 
several  dies,  becomes  hard  and  must  be  annealed  to  render  it  soft 
and  pliable;  it  is  then  pickled,  washed  and  cleaned  from  scale 
before  being  drawn  down  any  further.  A  large  quantity  of 
wire  is  galvanized,  which  consists  in  coating  the  metal  with  a  thin 
layer  of  spelter.  Before  being  coated,  the  wire  is  annealed  and 
cleaned,  passed  through  a  flux  bath  and  then  through  molten 
spelter.  The  excess  of  spelter  is  removed  by  passing  through 
asbestos  wipers,  or  charcoal  headers.  A  large  number  of  wires 
are  thus  treated  in  the  same  apparatus  at  the  same  time. 

NaUs 

Nails  are  short  pieces  of  metal  pointed  at  one  end  and 
forged  with  a  head  on  the  other  end;  they  are  used  for  fasten- 
ing and  joining  purposes.  The  shaft  of  the  nail  may  be  of 
various  forms,  but  is  usually  round  or  square.  With  reference 
to  the  method  of  manufacture,  there  are  two  kinds  of  nails,  name- 
ly, wire  nails  and  cut  nails,  wire  nails  being  by  far  the  most 
important.  They  are  manufactured  from  cold-drawn  wire  in 
automatic  machines,  called  nail  machines.  Cut  nails  are  pro- 
duced from  nail  plates  by  an  automatic  cutting  process.  Spikes 
are  large  nails-  Standard  railroad  spikes  are  a  special  design  of 
spike  manufactured  from  hot  or  cold  bar  iron  or  steel  wire  in 
automatic  machines,  called  spike  machines.  Nails  and  spikes  are 
made  in  a  great  many  forms  and  sizes,  and  are  named  after  the 

39 


• •        \ 


40 


The  Wire  Industry 


kind  of  work  to  which  they  are  applied.  They  are  packed  in 
wooden  kegs,  each  generally  weighing  100  to  200  pounds,  respect- 
ively, and  thus  shipped.  Large  quantities  also  are  packed  in 
small  cartons  and  boxes. 

Production  of  Cut  and  Wire  Nails 

Table  II  gives  the  production  in  kegs  of  100  pounds  of 
standard  sizes  of  cut  nails  and  spikes  cut  from  plates,  in  the 
14  years  from  1896  to  1912;  also  the  production  of  standard  sizes 
of  wire  nails  during  the  same  period.  The  annual  increase  of 

TABLE  II 

Cut  nails, 

Years.  kegs. 

1896  1,615,870 

1897  2,106,799 

1898  1,572,221 

1899  1,904,340 

1900  1,573,494 

1901  1,542,240 

1902  1,633,762 

1903  1,435,893 

1904  1,283,362 

1905  1,357,549 

1906  1,189,239 

1907  1,109,138 

1908  956,182 

1909  1,207,597 

1910   1,005,233 

1911   967,636 

1912  978,415 

wire  nails  over  cut  nails  in  the  13  years  also  is  shown.  The 
maximum  production  of  cut  nails  was  reached  in  1886,  when 
8,160,973  kegs  were  made,  and  the  maximum  production  of  wire 
nails  in  1912,  when  14,659,700  kegs  were  made. 


Kegs  of 

100  pounds. 

Excess  of 

Wire  nails, 

Total, 

wire  nails 

kegs. 

kegs. 

over  cut. 

4,719,860 

6,335,730 

3,103,990 

8,997,245 

11,104,044 

6,890,446 

7,418,475 

8,990,696 

5,846,254 

7,618,130 

9,522,470 

5,713,790 

7,233,979 

8,807,473 

5,660,485 

9,803,822 

11,346,062 

8,261,582 

10,982,246 

12,616,008 

9,348,484 

9,631,661 

11,067,554 

8,196,768 

11,926,661 

13,210,023 

10,643,299 

10,854,892 

12,212,441 

9,497,343 

11,486,647 

12,675,886 

10,297,408 

11,731,044 

12,840,182 

10,621,906 

10,662,972 

11,619,154 

9,706,790 

13,916,053 

15,123,650 

12,708,456 

12,704,902 

13,710,135 

11,699,669 

13,437,778 

14,405,414 

12,470,142 

14,659,700 

15,638,115 

13,681,285 

Barbed  Wire 

Barbed   wire   consists   of   two   twisted   wires   to   which   are 
securely   fastened  pointed   wires   called  barbs,   at   intervals   of   3 

41 


42 


The  Wire  Industry 


to  6  inches.  Barbed  wire,  generally  made  from  No.  12  to  No.  15 
gage,  is  manufactured  by  automatic  machines  and  is  put  up  on 
reels  from  65  to  85  pounds,  called  pony  reels;  and  on  reels  from 
100  to  110  pounds,  called  regular  or  catch-weight  reels.  The 
recent  practice  is  to  put  80  rods  on  a  reel,  the  weights  of  which 
vary  from  50  to  90  pounds. 

Wire  rope  is  composed  of  a  number  of  wires  wound  in 
spirals  around  a  core  of  lubricated  hemp  or  a  wire  center.  Vari- 
ous kinds  of  wire  rope  are  manufactured  from  l/%  inch  in  diameter 
up  to  2^2  to  3  inches  in  diameter,  or  larger.  The  use  to  which 
the  rope  is  to  be  put  governs  its  construction,  in  other 
words,  the  number  of  wires  and  strands,  and  the  quality  of  steel 
or  iron  which  enters  into  its  manufacture.  Wire  rope  is  wound 
on  wooden  reels  or  in  coils,  and  is  shipped  bright,  tinned  or  gal- 
vanized. 

Telephone  or  telegraph  wire  is  drawn  almost  exclusively 
from  iron  stock  made  specially  for  this  purpose.  It  is  galvanized 
to  insure  ample  protection  from  corrosion  under  extreme  weather 
conditions.  It  is  coiled  and  shipped  in  bundles  of  convenient 
size  and  weight. 

Fence  wire  is  made  of  steel,  any  gage,  from  No.  7  to  No. 
19.  It  is  black,  bright,  galvanized  or  painted.  Coiled  spring 
steel  fence  wire  is  generally  made  of  Nos.  7  to  14  gage,  slightly 
crimped,  in  other  words,  bent  uniformly  at  regular  intervals 
from  a  straight  line.  It  is  usually  galvanized  and  shipped  in 
bundles  of  convenient  size  and  weight. 

Woven  Wire 

Woven  fabric  consists  of  wire  fencing,  netting,  screens, 
guards,  wire  cloth,  concrete  reinforcement  fabric,  etc.  It  is 
manufactured  by  interlocking,  superposing  one  wire  about  the 
other  and  interweaving  them,  or  by  twisting  the  wires  around 
each  other,  or  by  joining  the  wires  at  their  intersection  by  means 
of  clips,  or  electric  welding. 

43 


44 


The  Wire  Industry 


The  fabrics  are  produced  on  a  large  scale  by  specially  de- 
signed automatic  machinery  and  are  shipped  flat  in  rolls,  or  on 
reels  bright,  galvanized,  tinned  or  painted. 

Bale  ties  are  used  almost  exclusively  for  baling  hay,  straw, 
shavings,  paper,  rags,  etc.,  and  are  shipped  in  bundles  containing 
250  ties  and  made  of  wire  from  No.  9  to  No.  20  gages. 

Wire  hoops  are  used  to  replace  wooden  and  flat  steel  hoops, 
particularly  the  bilge  hoops  on  slack  cooperage  barrels  and  kegs. 
They  are  made  of  wire  from  5/16  inch  diameter  to  No.  16  gage, 
and  the  ends  are  joined  by  electric  welding  or  twisting. 

Rivets 

Rivets  are  cylindrical  pins  with  a  head  on  one  end,  used 
for  uniting  two  or  more  pieces  of  material.  The  head  is  formed 
on  the  rivet  at  the  factory  by  an  automatic  machine  and  the  other 
head  is  formed  when  the  material  is  riveted  together,  either  by 
hand  or  pneumatic  tools.  The  rod  from  which  they  are  produced 
is  called  rivet  rod  or  wire.  Rivets  of  greater  diameter  than  y$ 
inch  are  made  from  heated  bars;  less  than  this  size  are  upset 
cold. 

Bolts  and  Nuts 

Bolts  are  short,  cylindrical  pins  with  a  head  on  one  end  and 
a  thread  cut  on  the  other  end.  In  conjunction  with  a  nut  they 
serve  for  uniting  parts  of  materials. 

Nuts  are  square  or  hexagonal  pieces  of  metal,  about  the 
thickness  of  the  bolt,  but  are  provided  with  a  hole;  they  are 
tapped  with  a  thread  to  match  the  thread  cut  on  the  bolt  to 
which  they  belong. 

Washers  are  plain  or  conical  plates  provided  with  a  hole 
to  fit  the  shaft  of  the  bolt  to  which  they  belong  and  are  used 
to  provide  a  better  contact  between  the  nut  and  the  material 
united  by  a  nut  and  bolt  preventing  the  nut  from  injuring  the 
material,  and  increasing  the  bearing  area. 

45 


8. 

<s 
<§" 

"8 

I 


I 


46 


The  Wire  Industry 


Bolts  and  nuts  are  formed  in  special  machines  from  cold 
wire  for  the  smaller  sizes,  and  from  hot  bars  or  bolt  and  nut 
iron  for  the  larger  sizes.  The  thread  is  cut  or  rolled  on  the 
bolt  blank  and  the  punched  nut  is  tapped  by  special  thread-cutting 
machines. 

Screws  are  short,  conical  pins  provided  with  a  slotted  head 
on  one  end  and  they  are  threaded  in  the  shaft  to  a  point.  The 
smaller  sizes  are  made  from  wire  screw  rods,  the  larger  sizes  from 
rods  or  bar  iron.  Special  automatic  machines  are  used  for  their 
manufacture. 

Chains 

Chains  consist  of  a  series  of  links  interlaced  with  the  adjoin- 
ing links;  they  are  only  useful  to  transmit  tension.  Chains  may 
be  classified  according  to  their  application  into  ornamental,  load, 
driving  and  stud  link  cable  chains.  Classified  according  to  the  ma- 
terial used  and  the  process  of  manufacture,  they  are  known  as 
plate,  wire,  forged  or  welded  and  weldless  chains,  respectively.  Or- 
namental chain  is  never  subjected  to  severe  strains  and  its  design 
varies  according  to  the  taste  of  the  maker  or  user.  Generally, 
ornamental  chain  is  manufactured  of  expensive  material  and  is  not 
used  for  industrial  purposes. 

Plate  chain  is  an  intermediate  style  between  the  orna- 
mental and  the  load  chain  and  is  commonly  used  for  attaching 
loose  pieces,  such  as  keys,  plugs  for  plumbing  work,  cups,  sash 
weights,  etc.  Most  of  these  chains  are  stamped  from  metal 
strips  with  a  hole  in  each  end;  these  are  doubled  and  the  ends 
are  secured  by  inserting  and  doubling  the  next  link. 

Wire  chain  forms  an  intermediate  product  between  plate 
and  welded  load  chain.  The  links  either  are  in  the  form  of  an 
oval  made  of  wire  bent  around  a  form  with  both  ends  butting 
against  each  other,  or  they  are  shaped  like  the  figure  eight  with 
two  openings,  the  ends  butting  against  the  sides  of  the  wire 
piece  near  the  middle. 

47 


48 


The  Wire  Industry 


Welded  Chains 

Welded  chains  are  by  far  the  most  important,  as  the  greater 
part  of  all  chains  in  use  are  welded.  They  may  be  either  hand 
or  machine-made. 

The  hand-made  chain  is  formed  and  welded  by  hand  and 
is  finished  by  blows  of  hand  hammers,  while  the  machine-made 
is  wound  into  shape  by  machinery  from  coils  or  bars,  cut  into 
links  by  the  same  power,  and  is  welded  by  dies  operated  by  power 
or  foot-driven  hammers. 

Machine-made  chains  cover  sizes  varying  from  3/16  to  1^4 
inches  in  diameter,  and  are  sold  per  100-pound  casks  in  three 
qualities,  namely,  proof  coil  chain,  B.B.  coil  chain  and  B.B.B. 
coil  chain. 

Hand-made  chains  cover  all  sizes,  \l/2  inch  and  heavier, 
and  include  stud  link  chains,  which  have  an  iron  separator  or 
stud  pressed  into  the  sides  of  the  link;  the  latter  are  used  largely 
for  marine  service.  Hand-made  chains  are  known  and  sold  as 
crane  or  dredge  chain  and  stud  link  chain. 

Open-hearth  steel  is  used  largely  in  chain  manufacture,  but 
the  better  grades  are  made  of  the  best  refined  iron.  Nearly  all 
chains  are  tested  by  the  manufacturer  before  being  shipped.  The 
chains  are  subjected  to  a  test  strain,  one-third  in  excess  of  that 
at  which  they  should  be  worked  in  safety. 

Weldless  chains  are  either  rolled  or  cast.  There  are  numer- 
ous patented  processes  for  producing  rolled  weldless  chains,  one 
of  the  most  notable  being  a  German  invention,  known  as  the 
Klatte  process.  Cast  chains,  even  when  cast  from  steel  and  sub- 
sequently rolled,  have  not  found  ordinary  industrial  application. 
Chains  are  shipped  plain,  or  blackened  if  it  is  desired  to  pro- 
tect them  from  rust  during  transit. 

Driving  chains  such  as  link  belt,  roller,  rocker,  silent  drive, 
etc.,  are  of  special  design,  requiring  accurate  machine  finish,  and 
in  conjunction  with  suitable  sprocket  or  gear  wheels,  form  a  part 
of  the  driving  mechanism  of  some  machines. 

49 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


Horse  Shoes 

Horse  shoes,  including  shoes  for  mules  and  oxen,  are  now 
manufactured  chiefly  in  rolling  mills  by  automatic  machinery. 
According  to  the  most  recent  estimate,  at  least  100,000  tons  of 
material  are  used  annually  for  this  product,  of  which  75  per  cent 
is  machine-made.  These  shoes  are  manufactured  in  a  wide 
variety  of  patterns,  sizes  and  weights,  ranging  from  those  used 
by  ponies  and  jacks  to  those  worn  by  the  largest  draft  horses. 
The  sizes  vary  from  No.  000  to  No.  8,  and  the  weights  from 
four  or  five  to  60  ounces. 

Toe  Calks 

Toe  calks  are  small  steel  bars  welded  on  to  the  toe  of  the 
shoe  and  are  made  in  all  sizes  to  suit  the  shoe  for  which  they 
are  used. 


50 


Chapter  V 

Tube  and  Pipe  Industry 

TUBES  and  pipes  are  interchangeable  names  given  to  long, 
hollow,  metallic  cylinders,  open  at  both  ends.  Tubes  are 
generally  rated  by  their  outside  diameter,  and  pipes  accord- 
ing to  their  nominal  inside  diameter.  They  are  made  from  vari- 
ous materials,  the  most  important  being  wrought  steel,  cast  iron 
and  wrought  iron. 

Cast  iron  pipes  are  used  mainly  for  the  conveyance  of  water 
having  pressures  less  than  100  pounds  per  square  inch.  They  are 
frequently  cast  with  a  bell  mouth  at  one  end,  into  which  fits  the 
plain  end  of  the  pipe  to  which  it  is  connected.  The  space  be- 
tween the  plain  pipe  and  bell  is  caulked  with  some  pliable  material, 
such  as  lead,  to  make  it  a  tight  joint.  For  high  pressure,  flanges 
are  cast  on  the  ends,  which  are  connected  with  bolts.  Cast  pipes 
are  manufactured  in  foundries  specially  built  for  this  purpose. 
After  being  cast,  they  are  usually  dipped  in  hot  asphalt  before 
shipping. 

Wrought  steel  pipes  may  be  divided  into  riveted  and  welded. 
Riveted  pipes  are  generally  of  diameters  larger  than  30  inches  and 
are  used  for  hydraulic  purposes.  They  are  made  from  plates 
overlapping  each  other  and  are  united  by  means  of  rivets. 

Welded  pipes  may  be  either  butt-welded  or  lap-welded. 
Welded  wrought  steel  pipe  is  used  most  extensively  and  enters 
into  the  construction  of  oil,  gas  and  water  lines.  It  is  used  in 

51 


52 


Tube  and  Pipe  Industry 


railroad  cars  for  brake  beams,  air  brake  cylinders,  for  house  heat- 
ing, plumbing,  gas  fitting  and  electric  conduits,  boiler  flues,  trolley 
poles,  railings,  posts,  bent  coils,  air  lines,  etc. 

Butt-welded  tubes  are  made  from  skelp,  heated  to  a  welding 
temperature  by  pulling  it  through  a  bell-shaped  die,  which  curls 
the  plate  and  welds  the  edges  together.  Butt-welded  tubes  are 
only  made  up  to  3  inches  in  diameter  inclusive  and  are  not  as 
strong  as  lap-welded. 

Lap-Welded  Tubes 

Lap-welded  tubes  are  made  from  heated  skelp,  which  has 
its  edges  beveled  (scarfed),  and  is  passed  through  bending  rolls. 
This  process  curls  the  skelp  into  the  shape  of  a  pipe;  it  is  then 
reheated  to  a  welding  temperature  and  is  passed  through  a  pair 
of  welding  rolls,  between  which  is  fixed  a  mandrel  on  the  end  of 
a  long  rod.  The  roll  presses  the  two  edges  of  the  scarfed  plate 
over  the  mandrel,  welding  them  together.  Lap-welded  pipe  is 
made  up  to  30  inches  in  diameter  inclusive.  All  tubes,  after  being 
welded,  are  run  through  sizing  rolls  to  give  them  true  outside 
dimensions ;  they  are  then  straightened  in  cross  rolls,  cooled,  cut  to 
length  and  tested  under  hydraulic  pressure. 

Welded  tubes  larger  than  30  inches  in  diameter  are  made 
from  bent  plates,  the  edges  of  which  are  raised  to  a  welding 
heat  by  a  special  burner;  the  plates  then  are  welded  together 
by  a  machine  constructed  for  this  purpose. 

Seamless  Tubes 

A  seamless  tube  is  one  in  which  the  walls  have  never  been 
separated  from  the  time  the  metal  was  in  a  molten  condition 
to  the  time  of  the  completion  of  the  tube.  These  tubes  are 
manufactured  from  solid  steel  blooms  or  billets  and  of  such  length 
as  to  produce  a  standard  length  of  tube.  There  are  several  proc- 
esses for  manufacturing  seamless  tubing,  but  the  general  method  is 
to  heat  the  billet  and  to  pass  it  through  a  piercing  machine,  over 

53 


54 


Tube  and  Pipe  Industry 


a  mandrel.  This  process  pierces  a  hole  through  the  center  of 
the  billet,  after  which  the  tube  is  rolled  successively  between  rolls 
and  over  a  mandrel,  until  the  proper  diameter  and  thickness  of 
wall  is  obtained.  Tubes  thus  produced  either  may  be  hot  or 
cold-drawn  over  a  mandrel  to  final  size.  In  cold-drawing,  the 
tube  is  first  pickled  in  a  bath  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  remove 
all  scale;  it  is  rinsed  in  water  and  drawn  without  further  treat- 
ment. The  tube  must  be  annealed  and  pickled  after  each  draw- 
ing. 

Cold  drawn  tubes,  from  %  to  \l/2  inches  outside  diameter 
and  from  No.  16  to  No.  23  B.  W.  G.  are  generally  known  as 
bicycle  tubing.  Tubes,  1  to  4  inches  in  diameter  and  No.  13  to 
No.  6  B.  W.  G.,  are  used  for  boiler  purposes.  Tubes  of  other 
thicknesses  than  those  enumerated,  generally  are  termed  mechan- 
ical tubes  and  are  used  for  parts  of  many  classes  of  machinery 
such  as  bushings,  hollow  shafts,  spindles,  axles,  collars,  rings, 
ferrules,  pump  barrels,  etc. 

Seamless  tubes  over  5  3/2  inches  in  diameter  and  up  to  about 
20  inches  are,  as  a  rule,  of  shorter  length  and  are  manufactured 
from  plates.  The  process  consists  in  first  pressing  the  form  of 
a  cup  from  a  heated,  circular  plate  which,  after  reheating,  is 
forced  through  a  succession  of  dies  by  a  punch  or  mandrel  insert- 
ed in  the  cup,  until  the  thickness  of  the  walls  of  the  now  hollow 
vessel  have  been  reduced  materially.  Further  reduction  in  thick- 
ness is  obtained  by  subsequent  drawing  similar  to  that  of  seam- 
less tubes.  Cylinders  for  compressed  gases,  which  are  subjected 
to  great  pressure,  are  made  in  this  manner,  the  open  end  being 
swaged  down  and  is  provided  with  a  suitable  connection.  Tube 
works  operate,  in  addition  to  their  tube  mills,  large  departments 
for  finishing  the  pipe  after  it  leaves  the  testing  bench.  This 
work  consists  in  threading,  upsetting,  bending,  flanging,  etc. 

As  pipes  are  commercially  not  over  20  feet  in  length,  they 
must  be  coupled,  in  other  words,  they  must  be  provided  with 
means  for  connecting  them  to  form  pipe  lines.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  various  forms  of  couplings.  These  either  may  be 

55 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


screwed  couplings  or  flanged  connections,  both  types  being  fabri- 
cated in  departments  containing  special  machinery  for  this  pur- 
pose. Most  gas  and  water  pipe  is  galvanized  and  this  process 
is  carried  on  in  a  separate  shop  with  special  mechanical  means 
for  galvanizing. 

Commercial  pipe  is  sold  at  a  list  price  per  foot  or  bundle  and 
not  by  weight,  except  hot-drawn  seamless  tubing  above  5^2  inches 
outside  diameter,  which  is  sold  at  a  net  price  per  pound.  Stand- 
ard weight  is  shipped  with  threads  and  couplings,  while  standard 
extra  strong  pipe  is  shipped  with  plain  ends,  unless  otherwise 
ordered.  Pipe  will  vary  5  per  cent  above  and  5  per  cent  below 
the  weight  per  foot  ordered  and  stock  lengths  are  16  to  18  and 
20  feet.  In  the  United  States  over  3,500,000  tons  of  pipe  and 
tubular  goods  are  produced  each  year. 


56 


Chapter  VI 

Tin  and  Terne  Plate  Industry 

TIN  plate  (tinned  plates)  are  sheets  of  steel,  generally  from 
No.  16  to  No.  38  gage,  coated  with  tin  in  order  to  protect 
them  from  corrosion.  In  heavy  gages,  they  are  sometimes 
called  tinned  sheets.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  practically  the 
same  up  to  the  annealing  operation  as  that  for  sheets.  At  this 
stage  of  manufacture,  sheets  to  be  tinned  are  first  pickled  to 
remove  the  scale;  they  are  then  washed  with  water  in  tanks  to 
remove  the  acid  and  then  they  are  annealed.  After  annealing, 
they  are  cold-rolled  to  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  in  order  that 
the  finished  tin  plate  will  attain  a  high  polish.  The  cold-rolled 
sheets  are  again  annealed,  pickled  and  washed.  The  sheets  are 
then  passed  into  and  drawn  through  a  bath  of  liquid  tin  by  means 
of  four  to  six  pairs  of  rolls,  which  are  immersed  in  it,  the  last 
set  squeezing  off  the  surplus  metal.  By  the  action  of  the  rolls, 
the  tin  is  distributed  as  evenly  as  possible  on  the  surface  of  the 
sheets  and  the  result  is  a  smooth,  bright,  adhering  coat  of  tin. 
The  surface  of  the  molten  tin  in  the  bath  is  covered  with  a 
layer  of  palm  oil  to  prevent  oxidation,  and  as  some  of  this  adheres 
to  the  plates,  it  is  necessary  to  clean  them.  This  is  accomplished 
by  a  branning  machine  through  which  the  plates  are  passed,  a 
series  of  revolving  brushes  applying  to  the  surface  bran,  or  a 
mixture  of  sawdust  and  lime.  The  plates  are  next  carefully 
inspected  in  the  assorting  room,  those  having  defects  being  sep- 

57 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


arated  from  the  good  sheets,  the  former  being  classed  as  wasters 
and  the  good  sheets  as  primes]  after  this  they  are  packed  in 
wooden  boxes  which  are  marked  with  the  sizes  and  gages  of  the 
plates  contained  therein,  and  whether  primes  or  wasters. 

The  standard  sizes  of  tin  plates  are  14  x  20  inches  and  20 
x  28  inches,  and  different  trade  terms  are  assigned  to  the  plates, 
depending  upon  their  sizes,  weights  per  square  foot,  and  the 
character  and  quantity  of  coating. 

Terne  Plates 

Terne  plates  are  manufactured  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
tin  plates,  except  that  the  coating  consists  of  a  mixture  of  tin  and 
lead  running  about  25  per  cent  of  tin  and  75  per  cent  of  lead,  and 
is,  therefore,  less  expensive.  They  are  called  terne  plates  because 
made  of  three  metals. 

Taggers  are  thin  sheets  largely  used  for  metal  signs;  they 
may  be  coated  or  uncoated;  when  coated,  tin,  lead  or  an  admix- 
ture of  these  metals  is  used.  Taggers  tin  is  a  name  originally 
applied  to  sheets  of  tin  plate  lighter  than  the  standard  gage. 

Corrugated  sheets  are  sheets  having  corrugations  or  grooves 
pressed  or  rolled  into  the  surface.  They  are  usually  produced 
by  passing  the  sheets  between  a  pair  of  rolls  in  the  surface  of 
which  corrugations  (grooves)  have  been  cut. 

Hot  galvanizing  consists  in  slowly  passing  the  sheets  through 
a  bath  of  molten  spelter  (commercial  zinc)  and  removing  the 
superfluous  zinc  by  iron  brushes,  or  otherwise.  Galvanizing 
is  specially  applied  to  corrugated  sheets  used  for  enclosing  build- 
ings. 

Planished  Sheets 

Russian  sheet  iron,  Russian  iron  or  planished  sheet,  is  a 
special  grade  of  sheet  with  a  glossy  black  appearance.  It  is 
produced  by  the  rapid  hammering  of  a  pile  of  sheets.  Sheets 

58 


Tin  and  Term  Plate  Industry 


toughened  and  hammered  to  obtain  a  polished  surface  are  said 
to  be  planished.  "Glanced"  sheets  used  in  this  connection  means 
brightened. 

Enameling  is  the  process  of  coating  metals  with  a  film 
of  vitreous  substance  called  enamel.  The  enamel  is  made  in 
many  different  colors  and  usually  is  a  secret  composition.  It  is 
applied  in  the  form  of  a  powder  or  solution  on  the  metal  to  which 
it  is  baked.  The  process  is  largely  used  for  sheets,  cooking 
utensils  and  sanitary  fixtures,  such  as  bath  tubs,  washstands,  etc. 

The  following  table  gives  the  production,  in  the  United 
States,  of  tin  plate  and  terne  plate  by  states  in  1912: 


Tin  plate, 
States.  pounds. 

Pennsylvania    1,179,468,000 

West     Virginia 347,544,000 

Ohio,      Indiana,      Illinois      and 
Michigan     438,647,000 


Terne  plate,  Total, 

pounds.  pounds. 

81,872,000     1,261,340,000 


86,030,000 
23,494,000 


433,574,000 
462,141,000 


Total    for    1912 1,965,659,000    191,396,000    2,157,055,000 


59 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


PRODUCTION  OF  TIN  PLATE  AND  TERNE  PLATE   IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES  SINCE  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE 

TIN  PLATE  INDUSTRY  IN  1891 

The  following  table  gives  the  production  of  tin  and  terne 
plates  in  the  United  States  from  the  beginning  of  the  industry 
in  1891  to  the  end  of  1912.  From  July  1,  1891,  to  June  30, 
1897,  the  statistics  were  collected  by  Colonel  Ira  Ayer  for  the 
Treasury  Department.  From  July  1,  1897,  the  statistics  have 
been  compiled  from  reliable  sources  of  information,  but  chiefly 
from  the  records  of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association. 
For  1900,  the  figures  are  for  the  census  year  ending  May  31, 
and  for  1904  for  the  census  year  ending  December  31,  the  sta- 
tistics for  these  two  years  having  been  collected  by  the  Bureau 
of  the  Census: 


Years. 


Tin  plate,       Terne  plate,         Total, 
pounds.          pounds.  pounds. 


1891 

(second    six    months)  .... 

368,400 

1,868,343 

2,236,743 

1892 

(calendar    year)  

....      13,921,296 

28,197,896 

42,119,192 

1893 

.  .  .  .      64,536,209 

59,070,498 

123,606,707 

1894 

.  .  .  .    102,223,407 

64,120,002 

166,343,409 

1895 

....    165,927,907 

88,683,488 

254,611,395 

1896 

.  ...    270,151,785 

89,058,013 

359,209,798 

1897 

(first  six  months)  

.  ...    203,028,258 

49,545,645 

252,573,901 

1897 

(second  six  months)  

322,205,619 

1898 

(calendar  year)  

732,289,600 

1899 

808,360,000 

1900 

(census  year  ending  May 

31)    707,718,239 

141,285,783 

849,004,022 

1901 

(calendar    year)  

894,411,840 

1902 

806,400,000 

1903 

1,075,200,000 

1904 

(census  year  ending  Dec. 

31)    867,526,985 

158,857,866 

1,026,384,851 

1905 

(calendar  year)  

1,105,440,000 

1906 

..1,100,373,000 

193,367,000 

1,293,740,000 

1907 

.  .  .  .    996,650,000 

156,447,000 

1,153,097,000 

1908 

,  .  .  .  1,048,896,000 

154,179,000 

1,203,075,000 

1909 

...1,179,858,000 

190,930,000 

1,370,788,000 

1910 

,...1,450,821,000 

168,184,000 

1,619,005,000 

1911 

...1,597,629,000 

158,441,000 

1,756,070,000 

1912 

,  .  .  .  1,965,569,000 

191,396,000 

2,157,055,000 

60 


Statistical 


IRON  AND  STEEL  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS 

The  following  tables  compiled  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor  gives  the  quantities 
and  values  of  United  States  imports  and  exports  of  iron  and 
steel  in  the  calendar  year  191 11: 

ROLLING  MILL  INDUSTRY 

Exports. 

Gross  Av.  val. 

Products.  tons,  per  ton. 

Rails   420,874     

Str.  iron  and  stl..  223,493  

Plates  and  sheets.   372,373     

Wire     rods 22,641      

Ingots,    bl'ms    and 

billets     234,267  

Merchant    bars .  . .    125,606  

Hoop,    band     and 

scroll    3,731  

1,402,985  $36.89 

WIRE    INDUSTRY 

Barbed   wire 96,754     $5,294,223  Wire   and 

All  other  wire 133,008     6,343,373  articles 

Cut  n'ls  and   spikes.    11,422     470,515  made  from         1,270,426 

Wire  n'ls  and  spikes.   53,614     2,486,185  estimated 

All    other,    including 

tacks    12,848     792,920  weight 

307,646  $50.01  $15,387,216  27,000              1,270,426 

TUBE  AND  WIRE  INDUSTRY 
Pipes  and  fittings.  197,507    $58.11     $11,476,743     .... 


Values. 
$12229045 

Imports. 
Gross  Av.  val. 
tons,  per  ton. 
3414 

Values. 
$     89,327 

10,270,977 
18,153,304 

5,343     
2453 

186,358 
274,945 

659,066 

15,483 

231,291 

5,150,S18 

29,205 

2,772,614 

5,123,479 

26729 

1,202,363 

163,853 
$51,750,242 

82,627    $63.62 

$5,256,898 

TIN  AND  TERNE  PLATE  INDUSTRY 
Tin  plate  and  terne 
plate    61,381     $77.81     $4,776,256     14,099    $76.77    $1,082,417 

SUMMARY 

Rolling  mill  in- 
dustry   1,402,985  $51,750,242  82,627  $5,256,898 

Wire  industry....    307,646     15,387,216    27,000     1,270,426 

Pipes  and  fit'gs..    197,507     11,476,743     

Tin  pi.  and  terne 
plate  61,381  4,776,256  14,099  1,082,417 

Total  tons  when 
shipped  1,969,519  $42.34  $83,390,457123,726  $61.50  $7,609,741 

above  industries  only. 

61 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


BASIC  FACTORS  OF  PIG  IRON  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  GERMANY  AND  GREAT  BRITAIN 

The  following  is  a  comparison  of  the  general  fundamental 
factors  dictating  the  production  of  pig  iron  in  the  United  States, 
Germany  and  Great  Britain,  with  particular  reference  to  the 
Pittsburgh  district  of  the  United  States,  the  Rheinland-Westfalia 
district  of  Germany,  and  the  Cleveland  district  of  Great  Britain; 


United    States, 

Germany, 

Great    Britain, 

Pittsburgh    district. 

Rheinland     district. 

Cleveland     district. 

1. 

1. 

1. 

Abundance   of   ores 

Scarcity      of      rich 

Scarcity     of     rich 

in  the   Lake   Superior 

ores;     abundance     of 

ores;     abundance     of 

district. 

lean      ores      (Sieger- 

lean    ores    (Cleveland 

land,    Lahn,    Lothrin- 

iron    stone). 

gen). 

2. 

2. 

2. 

Ore     requirements 

The     foreign     sup- 

Foreign   supply   ob- 

almost   entirely    pro- 

ply   from    Sweden, 

tained    from    Sweden, 

vided   for   by   domes- 

Spain   and    the    Med- 

Spain   and    the    Med- 

tic supply;  some  for- 

iterranean,     amounts 

iterranean       amounts 

eign      ore      imported 

to  about  30  per  cent 

to   about  40  per  cent 

for      tidewater      and 

of  the   ore   produced. 

of     the     ore     produc- 

eastern   furnaces. 

tion. 

3. 

3. 

3. 

The    ore    transpor- 

The   ore    transpor- 

Close   proximity   of 

tation     covers     about 

tation    covers    from 

coal   and   ore.     Long- 

950   miles    of    water- 

70   to    220    miles    of 

est   haul    for   coke   30 

way     and     200    miles 

railroad. 

miles    of    railroad. 

of   railroad. 

4. 

4. 

4. 

Freight      rates      on 

Freight      rates      on 

Freight      rates      on 

ore,  0.7  cent  per  ton 

ore,  ^0.1    cent  per  ton 

coke,     0.8     cent     per 

mile     railroad      and 

mile,    railroad. 

ton   mile    railroad. 

about     0.1     cent     per 

ton    mile,    waterway. 

5. 

5. 

5. 

Carrying       capacity 

Carrying       capacity 

Carrying       capacity 

of     railroad     cars     50 

of     railroad     cars     20 

of     railroad     cars     40 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

(Continued  on  Page  63) 
62 


Statistical 


BASIC  FACTORS  OF  PIG  IRON  PRODUCTION — Concluded 


United  States, 
Pittsburgh  district, 

Germany, 
Rheinland  district, 

Great  Britain, 
Cleveland  district, 

6. 
All    ore    cars    pro- 
vided   with    automat- 
ic dump. 
7. 
Scarcity     o  f     Con- 
nellsville    coking   coal 
in    about    30   years. 

6. 
Automatic      dump 
cars    not    furnished. 

7. 
Abundance   of   cok- 
ing   coal    for    several 
hundred    years. 

6. 
Some       automatic 
dump    cars    in    use. 

7. 
Scarcity    of    coking 
coal      in      about      50 
years. 

8. 
Distance      o  f      fur- 
naces    from,     tidewa- 
ter,  about   350   miles.  ' 

9. 

Large     furnace     di- 
mensions. 

8. 
Distance      o  f     fur- 
naces    from     tidewa- 
ter,   about    150   miles. 

9. 
Medium     furnace 
dimensions. 

8. 
Distance      o  f      fur- 
naces    from     tidewa- 
ter,   about    22    miles. 

9. 
Small    and   medium 
furnace       dimensions. 

10. 
It   takes   about    1^4 
tons    of    ore    to    pro- 
duce  one   ton  of  pig. 

10. 
It   takes   about   2*4 
tons    of    ore    to    pro- 
duce   one   ton   of   pig. 

10. 
It   takes    about   2^ 
tons    of    ore    to    pro- 
duce  one  ton   of  pig. 

11. 
It    takes    one    ton    of 
coke    to   produce   one 
ton  of  pig. 

11. 
It    takes    1.10    tons 
of    coke    to    produce 
one    ton    of    pig. 

11. 
It    takes    1.15    tons 
of    coke    to    produce 
one    ton    of    pig. 

12. 
The    average    pro- 
duction per  year,  per 
furnace,    90,000    tons. 

12. 
The    average    pro- 
duction per  year,  per 
furnace,    50,000    tons. 

12. 
The    average    pro- 
duction per  year,  per 
furnace,    35,000    tons. 

13. 
High   cost  of   daily 
labor. 

13. 
Low    cost    of    daily 
labor. 

13. 
Low    cost    of    daily 
labor. 

14. 
No     industrial      re- 
strictions or   charges. 

14. 
High   industrial   re- 
strictions or  charges. 

14. 
Low    industrial    re- 
strictions  or   charges. 

15. 
Protective     tariff. 

15. 
Protective     tariff. 

15. 
No   tariff. 

16. 
No   bounties. 

16. 
Railroad    and    syn- 
dicate   bounties. 

16. 
No   bounties. 

63 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


SUMMARY  OF  STATISTICS  FOR  1910  AND  1911 

Calendar  years. 

Subjects.  1910.                  1911. 
Production    of    iron     ore,     gross    tons     (1911 

approximate)   56,889,734          43,550,633 

Imports  of  iron  ore,  gross  tons 2,591,031             1,811,732 

Production  of  bituminous  coal,  gross  tons...  372,420,663         362,283,126 
Production  of  Pennsylvania   anthracite,   gross 

tons   75,433,246          80,771,488 

Production  of  all  kinds  of  coal,  gross  tons..  447,853,909        443,054,614 
Shipments    of   Pennsylvania   anthracite,    gross 

tons   64,905,786          69,954,299 

Imports  of  coal,  gross  tons 2,000,139            1,241,285 

Domestic   exports  of  coal,  gross   tons 13,805,866           17,432,753 

Shipments    of   Connellsville    coke,    net   tons..  18,689,722           16,334,174 

Production  oi  coke,    net    tons 41,708,810          35,551,489 

Production  of  pig    iron,     gross     tons 27,303,567          23,649,547 

Production  of  spiegeleisen      and      ferro-man- 

ganese,  included  in  pig  iron,  gross  tons....  224,431                184,718 

Production  of  Bessemer    steel,   gross    tons...  9,412,772            7,947,854 

Production  of  open-hearth   steel,  gross   tons.  16,504,509           15,598,650 

Production  of  crucible  steel,  gross  tons 122,303                 97,653 

Production  of  electric   and   other   steel,    gross 

tons     55,335                 31,949 

Production  of  all  kinds  of  steel,  gross  tons..  26,094,919          23,676,106 
Production  of  open-hearth      steel      castings, 

gross    tons 863,351               571,191 

Production  of  all     kinds     of     steel     castings, 

gross    tons 940,832               646,627 

Production  of  Bessemer      steel      rails,      gross 

tons 1,884,442            1,053,420 

Production  of  open-hearth    steel    rails,    gross 

tons 1,751,359            1,676,923 

Production  of  all  kinds  of  rails,  gross  tons..  3,636,031            2,822,790 

Production  of  structural  shapes,  gross  tons..  2,266,890            1,912,367 
Production  of  iron  and  steel  wire  rods,  gross 

tons     2,241,830            2,450,453 

Production  of  plates   and    sheets,   except   nail 

plate  and  skelp,  gross  tons 4,955,484            4,488,049 

Production  of  nail  plate,  gross   tons 45,294                 48,522 

Production  of  merchant    bars,    gross    tons...  3,785,731             3,047,362 

Production  of  skelp,  etc.,  gross  tons 1,828,194            1,980,673 

Production  of  all    other    rolled    forms,    gross 

tons     2,861,825            2,288,955 

Production  of  all  rolled  iron  and  steel,  gross 

tons 21,621,279          19,039,171 

Production  of  iron    and    steel    cut    nails    and 

cut    spikes,    kegs    of    100    pounds 1,005,233               967,636 

Production  of  steel     wire     nails,     kegs     of 

100  pounds 12,704,902          13,437,778 

(Continued  on  page  65) 
64 


Statistical 


SUMMARY  OF  STATISTICS  FOR  1910  AND  1911 — CONCLUDED 


SUBJECTS. 

Production  of  tin  plates  and  terne  plates, 
gross  tons 

Production  of  charcoal  blooms,  slabs,  bars, 
etc.,  for  sale  or  for  consumption  of  mak- 
ers, gross  tons 

Imports  of  iron  and  steel,   foreign  value.... 

Exports  of  iron  and  steel,  home  value 

Miles  of  steam  railr'd  in  operation  on  Dec.  31 

Miles  of  new  steam  railroad  built 

Tonnage  of  iron  and  steel  vessels  built, 
calendar  year 

Immigrants  landed  in  the  year  ended  Dec.  31 


Calendar  years. 
1910  1911 


722,770 


75,974 

$  38,907,119 

$201,271,903 

243,107 

3,918 

299,460 
1,071,885 


783,960 


64,616 

$  28,995,600 

$249,656,411 

246,573 

3,293 

163,805 
782,545 


THE  WORLD'S  LEADING  PIG  IRON  AND  STEEL  PRODUCERS 

The  following  table  contains  the  production  of  pig  iron 
and  steel,  from  1900-1911,  by  the  three  great  pig  iron  and  steel- 
making  countries.  To  show  relative  production,  the  figures 
given  are  all  in  1,000  metric  tons  of  2,204  pounds  each: 


Year.  U.  S. 

1900 14,010 

1901 16,132 

1902 18,106 

1903 18,297 

1904 16,761 

1905 23,360 

1906 25,712 

1907 26,194 

1908 16,191 

1909 26,208 

1910 27,740 

1911 24,028 


Pig  Iron. 

Germany. 

G.  B. 

8,521 

9,052 

7,880 

7,886 

8,403 

8,654 

10,086 

8,952 

10,104 

8,700 

10,988 

9,746 

12,478 

10,311 

13,046 

10,083 

11,814 

9,438 

12,918 

9,819 

14,793 

10,380 

15,534 

9,874 

U.  S. 
10,382 
13,689 
15,186 
14,757 
13,746 
20,354 
23,739 
23,773 
14,248 
24,338 
26,512 
24,055 


Steel  Ingots 
Germany. 

6,646 

6,394 

7,781 

8,802 

8,930 
10,067 
11,135 
12,063 
11,186 
12,050 
13,699 
15,019 


G.  B. 

5,131 
5,096 
5,102 
5,115 
5,107 
5,984 
6,566 
6,627 
5,380 
5,882 
6,107 


65 


The  Rolling  Mill  Industry 


THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  COAL,  COKE,  IRON  ORE, 
PIG  IRON  AND  STEEL  IN  1910 

To    show    relative   production,   the   figures   are   all    in    1,000 
metric  tons. 


fig1 

fD 

30 

sS? 

5? 

IS- 

fD 

3  co 

n> 

1-1 

*Z  ^ 

en   g 

"t 

n  ™ 

1-1 

Countries. 

If 

o 

fD 

3 

0 

fD 

3 

37 

fD 

3 

i-h 

3  § 

fD  p 

o 

fD 

3 

o'" 

Is 

o 
3 

3   O 

3  g 

oj? 

en  O 

o 

O 

en  ° 

United    States. 

.454,630*39.2 

38,418 

43.3 

57,800 

39.0 

27,740 

41.7 

26,512 

45.6 

Germany    

.221,976 

19.2 

23,600 

26.5 

28,710 

19.4 

14,793 

22.3 

13,699 

23.5 

Gt.   Britain  .... 

.264,505 

22.9 

12,116 

13.5 

15,470 

10.8 

10,380 

15.6 

6,107 

10.5 

Aus.  -  Hung'y- 

.  49,000 

4.2 

2,156 

2.4 

4,666 

3.1 

2,010 

3.4 

2,155 

3.7 

France    

.  37,862 

3.3 

2,272 

2.6 

14,500 

9.8 

4,001 

6.0 

3,390 

5.9 

Russia     

.  24,572 

2.1 

2,678 

3.1 

5,638 

3.8 

3,040 

4.5 

2,350 

4.1 

Belgium    

.  23,927 

2.1 

3,111 

3.4 

123 

0.1 

1,804 

2.7 

1,450 

2.5 

Japan    . 

.   14,799 

1  3 

51 

japan 

China    

.   14,591 

1  ?, 

203 

01 

Canada  

.   13,011 

1.1 

819 

0.9 

213 

0.1 

752 

1.2 

835 

1.4 

Australia    

.   12,246 

1  1 

286 

04 

176 

01 

India 

12092 

1  1 

56 

.     6,538' 

OS 

1,0652 

07 

Spain    

.     3,550 

0.3 

521 

0.6 

8,667 

5.9 

367 

0.6 

220 

0.4 

Holland      .... 

.     1,200 

01 

Italy    

.        400 

397 

0.5 

551 

0.4 

215 

0.3 

635 

1.1 

Sweden     

.        302 

5,184 

3.5 

594 

0.9 

470 

0.8 

Norway    

Newfoundland 

1,127 

07 

Cuba   

1,452 

1  0 

Greece 

608 

04 

Other    countries     4,000 

0.3 

2,500 

2.8 

1,591 

1.1 

525 

0.8 

315 

0.5 

Total     1 

,159,201 

100 

88,974 

100147,851 

100 

66,221 

100 

58,138 

100 

Transvaal   and 

Natal. 

2Algeria. 

Statistical 


WORLD'S  IRON  AND  STEEL  PRODUCTION  1850  TO  1910 
Growth  of  the  world's  pig  iron  and  steel  production,   1850- 


1910. 

Steel. 

.  Production  Increase, 

in  1,000  in  1,000  Per 

metric  tons,  metric  t'ns.  cent1. 

85  

120  35  41 

200  80  66 

422  222  111 

683  261  60 

1,926  1,243  183 

4,235  2,309  120 

6,041  1,806  43 

11,881  5,840  97 

15,651  3,770  32 

28,734  13,083  84 

44,296  15,562  54 

58,138  13,842  31 

ilndicates   per  cent   of   increase   in   tonnage    from   year    previous. 


Year. 
1850 

Pig  Iron 
Production, 
in  1,000 
metric  tons,  r 
4401 

Increase 
in  1,000 
netric  t'ns. 

Per 
cent1. 

1855 

6  150 

1  749 

40 

I860  

.  .  .  .   7,400 

1,250 

20 

1865  

.  .  .  .   9,481 

2,081 

28 

1870  
1875  
1880 

....12,146 
....13,920 
18331 

2,665 
1,774 
4411 

28 
14 
32 

1885 

19792 

1  461 

8 

1890  

.  .  ..27,627 

7,835 

40 

1895  

29,387 

1,760 

6 

1900  

41  032 

11  645 

40 

1905   ... 

54053 

13021 

32 

1910.. 

..66.321 

12.268 

23 

67 


Index 

PAGE 

American  Tube  &  Stamping  Co.'s  Blooming   Mill,   Frontispiece 

Andrews  Steel  Co.'s  Bloom    Shear    and    Tables 6 

Andrews  Steel  Co.'s  Sheet   Bar   Mill,   Plan   of 10 

Andrews  Steel  Co.'s  24-inch    Sheet    Bar    Mill 42,  44 

Andrews  Steel  Co.'s  34-inch     Blooming     Mill 4 

Armor  Plate,  Definition     of 33 

Armor  Plate,  Manufacture     of 33 

Armor  Plate  Mill,    Definition    of 19 

Axles,  Rolled,  Definition     of 33 

Axles,  Rolled,  Manufacture     of 33 

Bale   Ties,    Definition   of 45 

Bands      21 

Barbed   Wire,   Definition   of 41 

Bars     21 

Bars,  Definition     of 25 

Bars,  Merchant    Production    of 64 

Beam    Mill,    Definition    of 16 

Bethlehem  Steel  Co.'s  Rail  Cambering     Machine 30 

Bethlehem  Steel  Co.'s  Rail  Mill    Finishing    Department 18 

Bethlehem  Steel  Co.'s  28-inch   Rail   Mill  and  Tables 12 

Bethlehem  Steel  Co.'s  28-inch    Rail    Mill,    Plan    of 14 

Bethlehem  Steel  Co.'s  28-inch    Structural    Mill,    Plan    of 14 

Bessemer   Steel,    Production    of 64 

Billet,  Definition     of 20 

Billet  Mills,  Definition    of 13 

Billet  Mill,  Motor-Driven,   Continuous,  at   Gary,   Ind 11 

Bloom,   Definition  of 20 

Bloom   Shear  and  Tables,   Andrews    Steel   Co 6 

Blooming    Mill    Building,  Interior  View  of,  Frontispiece 

Blooming    Mill,    Definition     of 13 

Blooming  Mill,  40-inch,    Youngstown    Sheet    &   Tube    Co 2 

Blooming    Mill,    Plan  of  Andrews  Steel  Co.'s 10 

Blooming    Mill,    34-inch    Andrews    Steel    Co 4 

Bolts,    Definition   of 45 

Butt- Welded    Pipe    51 

Butt- Welded  Tubes    53 

Castings,    Open-Hearth  Steel  Production  of 64 

Castings,    Steel,  Total  Production  of 64 

Chain,    Cast     49 

Chain,    Driving     49 

Chain,    Hand-Made     49 

69 


Index 

PAGE 

Chain,  Machine-Made  49 

Chain,  Plate  47 

Chain,  Welded  49 

Chain,  Weldless  49 

Chain,  Wire  47 

Chains,  Classification  of. 47 

Chains,  Definition  of 47 

Chart,  Production  Conversion  for  1907  and  1911 17 

Chart,  Production  Conversion,  Showing  Weight  of  Open-Hearth 

Steel  Products  Obtained  from  2,000  Pounds  of  Ore 22,  23 

Chart  Showing  Amounts  of  Material  Charged  and  Produced  in 

Making  One  Ton  of  Pig  Iron 16 

Chart  Showing  Conversion  of  Pig  Iron  into  Finished  Products....  15 

Classification  of  Rolling  Mills 9 

Coal,  Anthracite,  Production  of 64 

Coal,  Bituminous,  Production  of 64 

Coal,  Exports  64 

Coal,  Imports  64 

Coal,  Total  Production  of 64 

Coal,  World's  Production  of 66 

Cogging  Mill,  Definition  of 13 

Coke,  Connellsville  Shipments 64 

Coke,  Production  of 64 

Coke,  World's  Production  of 66 

Cold  Mill 19 

Comparison  Basic  Factors  Pig  Iron  Production  in  the  United 

States,  Germany  and  Great  Britain 62 

Continuous  Mill,  16-inch . .  46 

Conversion  of  Pig  Iron  into  Finished  Products 15 

Corrugated  Sheets,  Definition  of 58 

Cotton  Tie  Mill,  Definition  of 19 

Cotton  Ties,  Definition  of 25 

Crucible  Steel,  Production  of 64 

Cut  Nails 39 

Dominion  Iron  &  Steel  Co.'s  16-inch  Morgan  Continuous  Mill 46 

Drop    Forgings,    Definition    of 34 

Drop    Forgings,    Manufacture    of     34 

Electric   Steel,   Production   of 64 

Electrical  Age  in  Steel  Plants 7 

Electricity,  Application  of,  In  Iron  and  Steel  Plants 8 

70 


Index 

PAGE 

Enameling     59 

Exports,   Iron   and   Steel 61 

Fabrics,    Wire 45 

Fence   Wire,    Definition   of 43 

Ferro-Manganese,    Production    of 64 

Finished    Products    21 

Finished    Rolled  Iron  and  Steel,  Total  Production  of 36 

Finishing  Department,  Rail   Mill,   Bethlehem   Steel   Co 18 

Flats,    Definition    of 25 

Forged    Iron   and   Steel,   Production   of 35 

Forged    Wheels,    Definition     of 34 

Forged    Wheels,    Manufacture      of 34 

Forgings,  Definition    of    31 

Forgings,  Drop,  Definition    of     34 

Forgings,  Drop,  Manufacture    of    34 

Forgings,    Manufacture    of 31 

Galvanizing,    Hot     58 

Glanced     Sheets 59 

History  of  the  Rolling  Mill  Industry 1 

Hoop  Mill,  Definition  of 19 

Hoops     21 

Hoops,  Definition    of     25 

Hoops,    Wire,    Definition    of 45 

Horse    Shoes 50 

Hot    Bed   for   Rail   Mill 28 

Hot    Saw  Run  for  a  Rail  Mill 26 

Hot    Saws,   Tilting  Frame,   for   Rail    Mill 24 

Illinois  Steel  Co.'s   16-inch   Merchant   Mil! 52 

Imports,   Iron   and    Steel 61 

Indiana  Steel  Co.'s   Motor-Driven   Continuous   Billet   Mill 11 

Iron  and  Steel,  Finished,    Total    Production    of    36 

Iron    and    Steel   Imports   and   Exports 61 

Iron  and  Steel  Production,    World's,    1850    to    1910 67 

Iron    Ore    Imports     64 

Iron    Ore,    Production    of     64 

Iron    Ore,    World's    Production    of 66 

La  Belle  Iron  Works'    84-inch    Plate    Mill 32 

La  Belle  Iron  Works'    Plate    Mill    and    Tables 38 

Lap-Welded  Pipe     51 

71 


Index 

PAGE 

Lap-Welded    Tubes    53 

Layout    of    Typical    Steel    Plant 7 

Layout,    Rolling  Mills   19 

Machine,     Rail     Cambering 30 

Manufacture  of  Structural   Shapes 27 

Materials  Charged  and   Produced  in  Making  One  Ton  of  Pig  Iron  16 

Merchant  Bar  Mill,    Definition    of    16 

Merchant    Bar    Mill,    Small,  .Definition    of 19 

Merchant    Mill,    16-inch 52 

Merchant    Mill,    10-inch,    Motor-Driven 54 

Merchant    Mill,    20-inch,    Motor-Driven 43 

Mill,   Merchant,    16-inch    52 

Mill,    Merchant,    10-inch,    Motor-Driven 54 

Mill,    Merchant,    20-inch,    Motor-Driven 48 

Mill,  Morgan  Continuous,   16  inch    46 

Mill,   Sheet    Bar,    24-inch 42,  44 

Motor-Driven,  20-inch   Merchant  Mill    48 

Nails,    Cut 39 

Nails,   Cut   and   Wire,    Production  of 41 

Nails,    Definition    of 39 

Nails,    Wire    39 

Nomenclature  of   Rolling  Mills 13 

Non-Reversing    Mills     11 

Nuts,    Definition    of 45 

Open-Hearth    Steel,    Production    of 64 

Open-Hearth    Steel   Products  Obtained    from  2,000   Pounds   of   Ore... 22,  23 

Piercing   Mill    19 

Pig  Iron  and    Steel    Producers,    World's    Leading 65 

Pig  Iron,  Material    Charged    and    Produced    in    Making    One    Ton    of  16 

Pig  Iron  Production,    Basic    Factors   of,    in    Germany 62 

Pig  Iron   Production,   Basic  Factors  of,  in   Great   Britain 62 

Pig  Iron  Production,  Basic  Factors  of,   in  United   States 62 

Pig  Iron,    Production    of    64 

Pig  Iron,    World's    Production    of 66 

Pipe   and    Tube    Industry 51 

Pipe,    Weight    of    56 

Pipe,  Butt-Welded     51 

Pipe,    Cast  Iron   51 

Pipe,    Definition    of    51 

Pipe,    Lap-Welded 51 

72 


Index 

PAGE 

Pipe,    Riveted    51 

Pipe,    Welded      51 

Pipe,    Wrought    Steel    51 

Plan  of   Andrews   Steel   Co.'s   Blooming   Mill 10 

Plan    of   28-inch    Rail    Mill    14 

Plan    of   28-inch    Structural    Mill    14 

Planished    Sheets,    Definition    of 58 

Plate,    Armor,    Definition    of 33 

Plate,    Armor,    Manufacture    of 33 

Plate    Chain     47 

Plate  Mill  and   Tables,    La    Belle    Iron    Works 38 

Plate    Mill,    Definition    of 19 

Plate    Mill,    84-inch     32 

Plate    Mill,    First 3 

Plate,  Nail,     Production    of 64 

Plates,    Definition    of    29 

Plates,    Manufacture   of    29 

Plates,    Nail,   Definition   of 31 

Plates,    Production   of    31,  64 

Plates,    Universal,    Definition    of 29 

Plates,   Universal,   Manufacture   of 29 

Primes,    Definition    of 58 

Process    of    Wire-Drawing 39 

Production    Conversion   Chart   for   1907  and    1911 17 

Production    of    Cut   and   Wire    Nails 41 

Production    of    Forged    Iron    and    Steel 35 

Production    of    Iron    Ore    64 

Production    of    Rolled    Iron    and    Steel 35 

Production    of    Terne    Plate    59 

Production    of    Tin    Plate     59 

Production    of    Tin  and  Terne  Plate   Since   1891 60 

Production,  World's   Iron  and  Steel,   1850  to  1910 67 

Products,    Finished     21 

Products,    Open-Hearth  Steel,  Obtained  from  2,000  Pounds  of  Ore  22,  23 

Products,    Seamless    Steel    Tubes 55 

Products,    Semi-Finished      20 

Rail    Cambering    Machine     30 

Rail    Mill,    Definition    of    16 

Rail    Mill,    Finishing   Department,    Bethlehem    Steel    Co 18 

Rail    Mill,    Hot    Bed    for *.'.  28 

Rail    Mill,    Hot    Saw    Run    for 26 

73 


Index 

PAGE 

Rail    Mill,    Tilting  Frame,   Hot   Saws  for 24 

Rail    Mill,    28-inch,    and   Tables,   Bethlehem  Steel   Co 12 

Rail    Mill,    28-inch,    Plan    of    14 

Rails,    Bessemer    Steel,    Production    of 64 

Rails,    Definition    of     27 

Rails,    Light,    Definition    of    27 

Rails,    Open-Hearth    Steel,    Production    of 64 

Rails,    Standard,    Definition    of 27 

Rails,    Total    Production    of 64 

Reversing  Mills    11 

Riveted    Pipe     51 

Rivets,    Definition     of 45 

Rod,    Definition    of 25 

Rod   Mill,   Definition   of 19 

Rods 21 

Rods,   Production   of 64 

Rolled    Iron    and    Steel,    Production     of     35 

Rolled    Iron    and    Steel,    Total    Production    of 64 

Rolling  Mills,  Classification    of     9 

Rolling  Mill,  Definition    of    9 

Rolling    Mill    Industry,    History    of 1 

Rolling    Mill    Layout     19 

Rolling  Mills,    Nomenclature    of    13 

Rope,    Wire,    Definition    of 43 

Russian    Sheet    Iron 58 

Screws,    Definition    of 47 

Seamless    Steel   Tube    Products 55 

Seamless    Tubes,    Definition    of 53 

Semi-Finished    Products    20 

Shape    Mill,    Definition   of 16 

Shapes,    Definition   of    25 

Shapes,    Structural,    Production    of 64 

Sheet    Bar,    Definition    of 20 

Sheet    Bar    Mill.    Definition    of    16 

Sheet    Bar    Mill,    Plan  of  Andrews   Steel   Co.'s 10 

Sheet    Bar    Mill,    24-inch,   Andrews   Steel   Co 42,  44 

Sheet  Mill,  Definition  of , 19 

Sheets,    Black      31 

Sheets,    Cold   Rolled    31 

Sheets,    Corrugated,    Definition    of 58 

Sheets,    Corrugated,    Use    of 58 

Sheets,    Definition    of    31 

74 


Index 

PAGE 

Sheets,    Manufacture    of    31 

Sheets,    Planished,    Definition    of 58 

Sheets,    Production    of 31,  64 

Singer   Mfg.    Co.'s   Motor-Driven    10-inch    Merchant    Mill 54 

Singer   Mfg.   Co.'s  20-inch    Motor-Driven    Merchant    Mill 48 

Skelp,    Definition    of    29 

Skelp,    Grooved      29 

Skelp,    Manufacture     of      29 

Skelp,    Production   of    64 

Skelp,    Scarfed      29 

Slab,    Definition    of 20 

Slabbing  Mill,    Definition   of    13 

Slitting     Mill     19 

Spiegeleisen,   Production   of    64 

Spikes     39 

Splice    Bars,    Definition    of 27 

Statistics,   Summary  of,   for   1910  and    1911 64 

Steel   Plant,    Layout  of  Typical 7 

Steel,    Total    Production    of 64 

Steel,    World's    Production   of    66 

Structural    Mill,    Definition    of    16 

Structural    Mill,    28-inch,    Plan    of    14 

Structural    Shapes,    Definition    of    25 

Structural    Shapes,    Manufacture    of    27 

Taggers,    Definition    of    58 

Taggers,    Use    of     58 

Telegraph    Wire,    Definition    of    43 

Telephone    Wire,    Definition    of    43 

Terne    Plate,    Definition    of    58 

Terne    Plate    Industry    57 

Terne    Plate,       Manufacture    of    58 

Terne    Plate,    Production   of    59 

Ties,    Bale,    Definition    of 45 

Tilting  Frame  Hot  Saws  for  Rail   Mill 24 

Tin  and  Terne  Plate  Production  since  1891 60 

Tin    Plate,    Definition    of    57 

Tin    Plate    Industry 57 

Tin    Plate,    Method    of    Manufacture 57 

Tin    Plate,    Production    of    59 

Tin    Plate,    Standard    Sizes    of 58 

Tire   Wheel    Mill. 19 

75 


Index 


PAGE 

Toe    Calks    50 

Total  Production  of  Finished  Rolled   Iron  and  Steel 36 

Tube  and   Pipe   Industry 51 

Tube   Mill,   Definition   of 19 

Tubes,    Butt-Welded    53 

Tubes,  Cold     Drawn     55 

Tubes,    Definition    of    51 

Tubes,    Lap- Welded,    Definition    of 53 

Tubes,    Lap-Welded,   Method   of   Manufacture 53 

Tubes,    Seamless    53 

Tubes,    Seamless,    Definition    of    53 

Tubes,    Seamless,    Manufacture    of     53 

Universal    Mill,   Definition   of    19 

Universal    Plate   Mill,  30-inch    40 

Washers,  Definition  of 45 

W'aster,   Definition   of    58 

Welded    Chain    49 

Welded     Pipes     -. 51 

Wheels,    Forged,    Definition    of 34 

Wheels,    Forged,    Manufacture    of    34 

Wire   Barbed,   Definition   of 41 

Wire    Chain    47 

Wire,  Definition     of     37 

Wire  Drawing    39 

Wire    Fabrics    45 

Wire    Fence,    Definition    of    43 

Wire    Hoops,   Definition   of    45 

Wire    Industry      37 

Wire    Mill,    Definition    of 19 

Wire    Nails    , 39 

Wire    Production     37 

Wire    Rope,  Definition  of   43 

Wire,    Telegraph,   Definition   of    43 

Wire,    Telephone,   Definition  of    43 

Wire,    Woven,   Definition   of    43 

World's  Iron  and  Steel   Production,   1850  to   1910 67 

World's  Leading  Pig  Iron  and  Steel  Producers 65 

Woven   Wire,   Definition   of 43 

Wrought   Steel   Pipe 51 

Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Co.'s  40-inch  Blooming  Mill 2 

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UNIVERSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


